School leadership
Various terms are used to designate school principals in national regulations. While the term 'principal' is common worldwide reflecting various educational traditions and structures, other terms such as 'school head', 'head teacher,' 'head master', 'school director,' or 'school manager' are also used.
- The four key dimensions of school leadership (set expectations, enhance teaching and learning, foster collaboration and support staff) are reflected in principals' professional standards at varying degrees. For example,73% of countries expect principals to plan professional development, and 78% expect them to set a clear school vision and objectives. But only in 51% of countries principals are expected to promote collaboration among teachers, in 57% to provide feedback to improve teaching, and in 64% to share school and student performance with parents. In 70% of countries, principals are expected to evaluate teachers.
- A large emphasis is placed on teaching experience in recruitment. Around half of countries prioritize teaching experience alone, but some 3 in 10 also consider management/administrative experience, while only 2% rely solely on the latter. Three-quarter of countries require principals to be fully qualified teachers.
- Many countries' regulations expect principals to be selected through competitive processes. These are used in 63% of countries for both primary and secondary education, while 8% apply open competitive recruitment only in primary and 3% only in secondary education.
- Principals' selection responsibilities rest often at the central level. This is the case in 42% of countries, while in 23% they are found at the local level. In 57% of countries, the appointment validation also occurs at the central level. In most countries, public school principals are hired as civil servants (75%), but in 37% of countries, they are hired with permanent contracts. 66% of countries set standardized salaries, and about one-third set financial incentives attached to this profession. Regular principals' evaluations exist in 78% of countries.
- Training is vital for effective school leadership. Globally, 88% of countries mandate continuous professional development for principals, but only 60% mention pre-service training and 31% induction training. The analysis of the content of 142 training programmes in 92 countries focusing on the four key dimensions of leadership revealed that transformational (42%) and instructional (47%) leadership are the most common areas covered, followed by staff development (31%) and shared leadership (29%). Only 18% of programmes cover all four dimensions.
- Shared leadership is key for school improvement. Globally, 83% of countries mandate parental involvement in school leadership, 62% require community representation on school committees, and about half require student councils. Teachers participate in school boards in 81% of countries, and students in 57%. Inclusivity is growing, with 16% of countries mandating gender and minority representation, especially in Central and Southern Asia.
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Drawing on the Concept Note of the 2024/25 GEM Report, the 2024/25 Profiles Enhancing Education Reviews (PEER) on school leadership respond to the following general questions:
1. Which terms are used in education laws and policies to refer to school leaders and school leadership?
2. What standards/skills/roles are expected of school principals?
3. What are the laws, acts, policies, strategies and frameworks that frame the selection and working conditions of school principals?
4. What are the laws, acts, policies, strategies and frameworks for the professional development and leadership preparation of school principals?
5. What are the laws, acts, policies, strategies and frameworks that frame the composition of school management bodies and the participation of middle leaders, parents and students in school leadership?
6. What are the laws, acts, policies, strategies and frameworks concerning school governance (autonomy, assessment and accountability)?
The profiles were primarily prepared through desk review by the GEM Report team, complemented by commissioned research to add subnational examples for selected countries with complex institutional structures. For all profiles on the website, when they are drafted, countries are invited through their delegation at UNESCO to review and update the information. When this step of the process is complete, it is indicated on the website on the relevant page of the country’s profile with a blue tick.
The profiles are not intended to examine or discuss implementation. Sources used in the profiles come from official documents (e.g., legislation, policies and statistical sources) and peer-reviewed literature. The profiles on leadership in education focus mainly on primary and secondary education.
Available countries: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Angola, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Armenia, Aruba, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Belize, Benin, Bermuda, Bhutan, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, British Virgin Islands, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cabo Verde, Cambodia, Cameroon, Canada, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, Comoros, Congo, Republic of Cook Islands, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Croatia, Cuba, Curaçao, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Estonia, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Fiji, Finland, France, Gabon, Gambia, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Hong Kong (China), Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kiribati, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Republic of South Korea, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Latvia, Lebanon, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macao (China), Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mexico, Micronesia, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Montserrat, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nauru, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, Niue, North Macedonia, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Palau, Palestine, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Russian Federation, Rwanda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, São Tomé and Príncipe, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Serbia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Sint Maarten, Slovakia, Slovenia, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Sweden, Switzerland, Syrian Arab Republic, Tajikistan, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Togo, Tokelau, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Türkiye, Turkmenistan, Turks and Caicos Islands, Tuvalu, Uganda, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales), United Republic of Tanzania, United States of America, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Viet Nam, Yemen, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
CONTENT OF 2024/25 PEER ON SCHOOL LEADERSHIP
Each profile is structured in four parts: Terminology; School principals; Teachers, parents and students; Governance.
1. TERMINOLOGY
2. SCHOOL PRINCIPALS
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
2.2. Selection and working conditions
2.3. Leadership preparation
3. TEACHERS, PARENTS AND STUDENTS
3.1. School management committees and boards
3.2. Middle leaders (teachers with additional leadership responsibilities)
3.3. Parents
3.4. Students
4. GOVERNANCE
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
