Technology
2. Technology laws, policies, plans and regulations
2.1. Education technology legislative and policy framework
2.2. Technology infrastructures, technological capacity of schools and learning environments
2.3. Technology competencies of learners and teachers
3.1. Institutions in charge of technology in education and coordination mechanisms
1. Terminology
Various Chinese national education laws use terms related to technology in education. However, no definitions are provided. The main terms are: education informatisation, smart education, education digitisation, distance education, and online education.
The Key Areas of Work of the Ministry of Education in 2022 include education digitisation with regard to the implementation of the education digitisation strategy.
The Rural Revitalisation Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China of 29 April, 2021 refers to remote education in the context of continuous improvement of the running conditions of rural schools and support for the development of online distance education. Remote education aims to “continuously improve the running conditions of rural schools and support the development of online distance education”.
According to the Education Law of the People’s Republic of China amended on 29 April, 2021, the state promotes education informatisation, accelerates the construction of educational information infrastructure, uses information technology to promote the popularisation and sharing of high-quality educational resources, and improves the level of education and teaching and education management.
Education informatisation is also mentioned in such documents as Education Informatisation 2.0 Action Plan, 13th Five-Year Plan for Education Informatisation and Ten-Year Development Plan for Education Informatisation (2011–2020).
The 14th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development of the People’s Republic of China and the Long-Term Goals for 2035 refers to smart education in the context of incorporation of high-quality online resources into the public teaching system, promotion of online access to high-quality educational resources for weak schools in rural and remote areas, and the development of scenario-based, experiential learning and intelligent education management evaluation.
In the Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China amended on 29 December, 2018 distance education is mentioned while describing state support for the use of radio, television, correspondence and other tools to implement higher education.
The 13th Five-Year Plan for Education Informatisation describes online education and sets the goals of developing online and distance education, promoting open sharing of various high-quality educational resources and providing services to the public.
2. Technology laws, policies, plans and regulations
2.1. Education technology legislative and policy framework
Constitution and laws: Article 66 of the Education Law of the People’s Republic of China (amended on 29 April, 2021) specifies that the state shall promote the development of information technology in education, accelerate the construction of information infrastructure for education, and use information technology to promote the popularization and sharing of high quality educational resources and enhance the capability of education and teaching and the capability of educational management.
Article 7 of the Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China (amended on 29 December, 2018) specifies that the state supports the adoption of broadcast, television, correspondence and other modes of distance education to achieve higher education.
Article 25 of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Promotion of Rural Revitalisation (effective July 1, 2021) specifies that the governments at all levels shall strengthen the coordination of rural education work, continue to improve the conditions of schools in rural areas, support the offering of distance education, improve the quality of rural basic education.
Policies, plans and strategies: In March 2012, the Ministry of Education released the Ten-Year Development Plan for Education Informatisation (2011-2020), which clearly stated that by 2020 “the overall level of education informatisation will be close to the international advanced level, and its supporting and leading role to education reform and development will be fully realised”.
In June 2016, the Ministry of Education released the 13th Five-Year Plan for Education Informatisation, which proposed to ensure that by 2020 basically “anyone can learn anywhere and anytime” and form an education informatisation system in line with the national education development goals.
In April 2018, the Ministry of Education issued the Education Informatisation 2.0 Action Plan, which aimed to ensure that by 2022 teaching applications are provided to all teachers, learning applications cover all school-age students, and digital campus constructions cover all schools (primary, secondary and high). The IT application level and the level of information literacy of teachers and students need to be improved, and a large-scale platform of “Internet + Education” will be built. On July 8, 2021, the Ministry of Education and five other government agencies issued the Guidance on Promoting the Construction of New Educational Infrastructure to Build a High-Quality Education Support System, which requires building “a new education infrastructure system with optimised structure, intensive efficiency, safety, and reliability” by 2025. On February 8, 2022, the Ministry of Education released the Key Areas of Work of the Ministry of Education in 2022, which proposed to "implement a strategic initiative on education digitalisation".
Digital competency frameworks: On April 8, 2022, MOE releases the Compulsory Education Curriculum and Standards for 16 subjects. The curriculum and standards for information technology published the digital competency framework for students. On May 27, 2014, the General Office of MOE issued the IT Application Competency Standards for Primary and Secondary School Teachers (trial version), which emphasises five dimensions of teacher digital competency.
Changes occurred as a result of COVID-19: No changes in laws, policies and strategies regarding technology in education have been observed since March 2020.
2.2. Technology infrastructures, technological capacity of schools and learning environments
2.2.1. Technology infrastructure and digital capacity of schools
Electricity: Article 12 of the Electricity Law of the People’s Republic of China (amended in 2018) indicates that the state formulates relevant policies to support and promote electric power construction. Article 47 of the Electricity Law of the People’s Republic of China (amended in 2018) indicates that the state implements preferential policies for rural electrification and gives key support to the construction of rural electricity networks in ethnic minority areas, remote and poor areas.
Computers and devices: The 13th Five-Year Plan for Education Informatisation provides for “encouraging schools to create conditions for equipping teachers and students with teaching terminals”. On April 16, 2018, the Ministry of Education released the Specifications for Digital Campus Construction for Primary and Secondary Schools (for trial implementation) suggesting “to equip every classroom with an appropriate number of public computers that organically fit into the classroom environment”. According to the Guidance on Promoting the Construction of New Educational Infrastructure to Build a High-Quality Education Support System, “personal learning terminals that meet technical standards and learning needs are popularised in places where they are available to support personalised teaching and learning under network conditions.”
The country does not have laws, policies, plans or strategies to provide a device for every student/family or subsidies for the purchase of technological devices.
Internet connectivity: On August 1, 2013, the State Council issued the Broadband China Strategy and Its Implementation Plan to “accelerate broadband network coverage in schools”. In December 2018, the Ministry of Education and several other government agencies issued the Notice on the Implementation of the School Networking Initiative to comprehensively improve network access and bandwidth conditions of schools throughout the country by the end of 2020. The Guidance on Promoting the Construction of New Educational Infrastructure to Build a High-Quality Education Support System proposes to deploy fixed broadband networks of 10 Gbps for counties, 1 Gbps for high schools and 100 Mbps for primary and secondary schools. The country does not have a law to provide the population with universal access to the Internet.
2.2.2. Technology and learning environments
In June 2016, the Ministry of Education released the 13th Five-Year Plan for Education Informatisation which proposes to “develop online education and distance learning, promote open sharing of various high-quality educational resources, and provide services to the whole society”. In September 2019, the Ministry of Education and eleven other agencies issued the Guidance on Promoting Healthy Development of Online Education to regulate “the development and use of quality online education platforms”. On February 6, 2020, the Ministry of Education (MOE) issued the Notice on Supporting Education and Teaching with Information Technology during the Epidemic Prevention and Control Period prepared by the Office of the Leading Group for Responding to the COVID Epidemic, defining six major tasks such as “improving network support conditions”, “enhancing platform service capabilities”, “pooling resources from various social parties” and “adopting appropriate teaching methods”. For preventing and controlling COVID-19, the Ministry of Education issued the Notice on Enhancing Activities within the ‘Ensuring Learning Undisrupted When Classes Are Disrupted’ Initiative in Primary and Secondary Schools to further strengthen online learning guidance for this initiative to be implemented in an orderly, effective and in-depth manner, and to ensure the continuity of learning.
On April 18, 2018, MOE launched the Education Informatisation 2.0 Action Plan which specifies three main tasks, including building an integrated "Internet + Education" platform.
On February 12, 2020, against the backdrop of the COVID-19 outbreak, an emergency policy initiative called “Suspending Classes Without Stopping Learning” was launched by the Chinese Government to continue teaching activities as schools across the country were closed. Four main resources are specified in “Suspending Classes Without Stopping Learning”: National Primary and Secondary School Network cloud platform, special TV channels, online learning platforms in some provinces, cities, and primary and secondary school; other resources (such as digital textbooks and digital teaching resource library).
2.3. Technology competencies of learners and teachers
2.3.1. Learners
On April 16, 2018, the Ministry of Education released the Specifications on Digital Campus Construction for Primary and Secondary Schools (for trial implementation), which refer to basic information literacy of students in two aspects: 1) learning attitudes, and 2) learning skills. The Education Informatisation 2.0 Action Plan emphasises that the importance of enhancing information literacy for building moral character and cultivating innovative talents should be fully recognised. With this in view, an information literacy evaluation index system for students should be developed, scaled-up assessments should be carried out, and targeted training and cultivation should be implemented.
On April 8, 2022, MOE releases the Compulsory Education Curriculum and Standards for 16 subjects. The curriculum and standards for information technology specify four core competencies for students in a competency framework, i.e., “information awareness”, “computational thinking”, “digital learning and innovation”, “responsibility for information society”. These 4 core competencies support each other to promote students' digital literacy and skills.
On January 28, 2021, MOE and other five departments issued Guiding Opinions on Strengthening the Construction and Application of Online Education Teaching Resources in Primary and Secondary Schools, which specify the vision of how to improve students’ information literacy. Governments at all levels should guide and promote primary and secondary schools to open full and complete information technology courses in accordance with the national curriculum programme and curriculum standards, organically integrate the cultivation of information literacy into the education and teaching of various subjects, cultivate students' information awareness and the ability to retrieve, identify and select information, and focus on improving students' digital learning and innovation skills, as well as their ability to use information technology to solve practical problems. IT courses should be actively promoted to be included in junior and senior secondary school academic level examinations, and students' information literacy should be included in their comprehensive quality assessment. The schools should be focusing on cultivating students' habits of scientific and rational use of electronic devices, controlling the time of use, safeguarding eye hygiene and paying attention to the prevention and control of myopia.
No additional policy, plan or strategy supporting STEM has been found.
2.3.2. Teachers
On December 15, 2004, the Ministry of Education issued the Educational Technology Competency Standards for Primary and Secondary School Teachers (for trial implementation) which require primary and secondary school teachers to “master the methods of information retrieval, processing and utilisation; methods of common teaching media selection and development; general methods of teaching system design; methods of teaching resource management, teaching process management and project management, methods of evaluation of teaching media, teaching resources, teaching process and teaching effectiveness.”
On May 27, 2014, the General Office of the Ministry of Education issued the IT Application Competency Standards for Primary and Secondary School Teachers (trial version) emphasising five dimensions of teacher IT competency: 1) technology literacy, 2) planning and preparation, 3) organisation and management, 4) assessment and diagnosis, and 5) learning and development.
The Specifications on Digital Campus Construction for Primary and Secondary Schools refer to teachers’ basic information literacy in two aspects: 1) work attitude and ideological awareness, 2) teaching methods and skills.
In April 2018, MOE launched the Education Informatisation 2.0 Action Plan, which specifies teachers' information literacy improvement as one of three major tasks. Based on this plan, on March 21, 2019, MOE issued Guiding Opinions on the Implementation of the National Primary and Secondary School Teachers' IT Application Capacity Enhancement Project 2.0. The Capacity Enhancement Project 2.0 highlights the development of information-based education and teaching reform in schools to lead the training of teachers' IT application skills, seizes the "key groups", implements classification guidance and adapts to technological development, and proposes to build a school-based, classroom-based, application-driven, innovation-oriented and accurately assessed teacher information literacy by 2022.
The country does not have additional regulations for providing initial or in-service teacher training on technology or providing teachers with training on cybersecurity and safety.
2.4. Cybersecurity and safety
2.4.1. Data privacy
On November 7, 2016, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress passed the Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China requiring that “departments and the staff responsible for cybersecurity supervision and management maintain strict confidentiality regarding personal information, privacy and commercial secrets, and should not disclose, sell, or illegally provide this information to others.”
On July 8, 2017, the State Council released the New Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan with a view to “coordinate the use of big data infrastructure and strengthen data security and privacy protection”, “effectively strengthen the management and increase disciplinary actions against data misuse, violation of personal privacy, moral and ethical violations.”
The Data Security Law of the People's Republic of China of June 10, 2021, stipulates that “state bodies… shall, in accordance with the law, preserve the confidentiality of the data accessed in the course of performing their duties, such as personal privacy, personal information, commercial secrets, and confidential business information, and shall not divulge such data or illegally provide them to others.”
On November 14, 2021, the Cyberspace Administration of China issued draft Regulations on Network Data Security Management for public comments. This document stipulates in Article 43 that “Internet platform operators should establish systems for the disclosure of data-related platform rules, privacy policies, and algorithm policies, and promptly disclose the drafting and decision procedures, to ensure the fairness and equity of platform rules, privacy policies, and algorithms.
2.4.2. Online abuse and cyberbullying
On November 1, 2016, the Ministry of Education and eight other government agencies issued Guidelines on Preventing Bullying and Violence among Primary and Secondary School Students proposing to further strengthen positive publicity and guidance on the protection of students, and to prevent the spread of bullying and violence among students into cyber-bullying through the proliferation of new online media.
On September 15, 2021, the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council issued the Guidance on Strengthening the Construction of Network Civilisation, proposing to “improve the mechanism for preventing adolescents from becoming addicted to the network, resolutely combat and stop adolescent cyberbullying according to law, and protect the legitimate rights and interests of young people in cyberspace.”
3. Governance
3.1. Institutions in charge of technology in education and coordination mechanisms
The Ministry of Education is responsible for the macro guidance and standard setting of education informatisation. The Ten-Year Development Plan for Education Informatisation (2011-2020) issued by the Ministry of Education stipulates that “governments at all levels are the main responsible bodies for education informatisation. Education informatisation is mainly promoted by provincial governments while local education departments and schools at all levels are the main executive bodies.” The Education Informatisation 2.0 Action Plan calls for “the Ministry of Education to focus on organising macro policies on education informatisation, strengthening guidance and formulating standards and specifications in response to the needs of education reform and development at all levels and different regions”. The Ministry of Education has established the the Education Informatisation Promotion Office and the Network Security and Informatisation Leading Group to coordinate major issues of network security and informatisation in the education system and to study and formulate strategies, macro plans and major policies for the development of network security and informatisation in the education system.
The main departments of the Ministry of Education responsible for the promotion of national education informatisation are the Department of Science, Technology and Informatisation, the Education Technology and Resource Development Centre, and the Education Management Information Centre.
The Department of Science, Technology and Informatisation (renamed in February 2021, formerly the Department of Science and Technology of the Ministry of Education) is charged with overall planning, comprehensive coordination and macro management of the network security and informatisation work of the education system.
The Education Management Information Centre of the Ministry of Education is responsible for providing modern technical environment and services such as computer networks for business management activities of the departments and bureaus of the Ministry of Education; organising, coordinating and promoting the development of national education management information systems and gradually establishing a national education information network for education management services; and formulating national education information standards and data exchange standards. The main functions of the Education Technology and Resources Development Center (National Center for Educational Technology) of the Ministry of Education include: providing policy and planning proposals for education technology and resources development; formulating action plans for the reform and development of education technology and resources; developing national standards for education technology and resources; assisting in the review and examination of digital education resources and application supervision; assisting the development of cloud-based, web-based and end-based public services in serving teachers and students; building and operating national education technology and resource technology platforms; interconnecting various platforms, tools and resources at all levels; and providing technical support and services for education management information systems and resource application supervision.
3.2. Roles of schools
The Ten-Year Development Plan for Education Informatisation (2011-2020) aims “to appoint senior officers responsible for informatisation at all levels and in all types of educational institutions, as well as to establish informatisation management and service organisations in universities and schools.” The Thirteenth Five-Year Plan for Education Informatisation proposes “to gradually establish a system of school leaders with chief information officers (CIOs) at the head at all levels and in all types of schools to fully coordinate the planning and development of information technology in the units.” The Education Informatisation 2.0 Action Plan encourages schools at all levels to implement a system in which school leaders serve as CIOs with clear responsibility for the overall planning and development of informatisation in these schools.
On January 18, 2021, the General Office of MOE issued Notices on Strengthening the Management of Mobile Phones for Primary and Secondary School Students. Mobile phones should be limited to bring into campus. Schools should inform students and parents that, in principle, personal mobile phones are not allowed to be brought into campus. If a student has a genuine need to bring a mobile phone into campus, he or she must obtain the consent of the student's parents, submit an application in writing and leave the mobile phone in the school's custody after entering the school, and is prohibited from bringing it into the classroom.
