School leadership
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
2.2. Selection and working conditions
2.3. Leadership preparation and training
3. Teachers, parents and students
3.1. School management committees and boards
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
1. Terminology
While the term ‘school principals’ is not explicitly mentioned in the 1995 Ghana Education Service Act, it can be inferred that it may fall under the category of “managers of educational units" mentioned in Section 2(c). The Ghana Education Service, as established by the Act, comprises various personnel involved in the education sector, including teachers, non-teaching supporting personnel, managers of educational units, and other individuals employed for the Service.
The 2018 National Pre-Tertiary Education Curriculum Framework refers to ‘head of schools’ and ‘head teachers’.
The 2015 Beginning Teachers Handbook uses the term ‘heads of educational institutions’. They are described as visionary, change agents, and risk-takers.
The 2017 Code of Conduct for Staff of the Ghana Education Service refers to ‘head of institution’ and ‘school head’. It also clarifies that in basic level schools, the term used for school principals is ‘headteacher’ whereas in secondary schools, it is ‘headmaster/ headmistress’ (Part 7.1).
The 2020 Education Regulatory Bodies Act No.1023 refers to the terms ‘heads of tertiary education institutions’.
The 2021 Organizational Life of the Ghana National Association of Teachers refers to the term ‘headmaster/headmistress of a secondary school’ on several instances.
The 2018–2030 Education Strategic Plan refers to ‘heads of senior high school (SHS)/ technical vocation institutions (TVI)’.
The 2020 Pre-Tertiary Education Act uses the term ‘administrative head’ to refer to principals of both basic and senior high schools [Section 46(2)].
The 2012 Pre-tertiary Teacher Professional Development and Management in Ghana Policy Framework uses the term ‘heads of school’ or ‘head of schools’ in several occasions.
In sum, the term ‘principal’ is not used in Ghanaian policy documents to refer to school leaders in pre-tertiary educational institutions. Rather, terminologies such as head of school, school manager, headteacher (specifically for basic schools), headmaster/headmistress (specifically for senior high schools) are applied.
2. School principals
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
Competency standards and leadership frameworks and guidelines
The 2010 Head Teacher’s Handbook, published by the Ghana Education Service, includes several roles for head teachers. The National Teachers’ Standards define competency standards for teachers, but not head teachers.
The 2015 Beginning Teachers Handbook describes the various elements that make up the knowledge, skills, and attributes expected of a school head. The descriptors listed are set of competencies a school head should possess to effectively navigate the challenges and demands of their role. They are referred to as the Leadership Quality Standards and Descriptors developed by the Ghana National Association of Teachers (GNAT). According to these standards, quality leadership is characterized by the school head's continuous analysis of the school context. It involves the head demonstrating professional actions, making sound judgments, taking decisions that prioritize the best interests of students, and supporting teaching and learning opportunities within the school.
Additional roles for head teachers are described in the 2020 Inspection Handbook, 2017 Code of Conduct for Staff of the Ghana Education Service, 2012 Pre-Tertiary Teacher Professional Development and Management Policy Framework, and 2021 Induction Handbook for Newly Qualified Teachers.
Roles
Setting expectations/objectives: The 2015 Beginning Teachers Handbook emphasizes the importance of the school head possessing a clear vision for education, informed by research, personal beliefs, and values. The head steers the school towards positive transformations and collaborates with staff and the community to shape its direction by developing the school's mission and vision statements, crafting improvement plans, promoting participation in educational research, and advocating for change. The 2020 Inspection Handbook similarly requires the headteacher and senior leadership team to document a clear vision for the school and communicated to all stakeholders.
Developing teaching and learning: The 2015 Beginning Teachers Handbook describes the role of a school head as an instructional leader. The head is tasked with ensuring quality teaching and learning within the school. While acknowledging that teachers bear the primary responsibility for instruction and evaluation, the head plays a crucial role in fostering an environment conducive to learning. This includes supporting teachers in implementing curricula, demonstrating a solid understanding of the programmes of study and pedagogy, and creating conditions that promote success in teaching and learning.
The 2020 Inspection Handbook requires the headteacher and senior leadership team to have a plan they follow to support the teaching and learning activities in the school. It further requires the headteacher and senior leadership team to demonstrate capacity to improve teaching and learning outcomes.
The 2017 Code of Conduct for Staff of the Ghana Education Service affirms that it shall be the responsibility of the head of the institution to ensure a teacher prepares relevant and adequate teaching notes for his/her work in advance.
The 2012 Pre-tertiary Teacher Professional Development and Management in Ghana Policy Framework expects headteachers to keep a record of teacher attendance and compliance with NTC determination of duration of hours to be spent in school by teachers.
Promoting collaboration: The 2015 Beginning Teachers Handbook states that the head is responsible for promoting positive relationships between the school and the community by involving community members in school activities and providing accurate information about the school's progress. Acting as an advocate, the head champions for the school and public education, nurturing positive working relationships with all stakeholders, including students, parents, the School Management Committee, and the broader school community.
The 2020 Inspection Handbook emphasizes the need for the headteacher to have productive relationships with School’s Management Committee (SMC)/Board, parents, and the Parent Teacher Association.
Supporting staff development: The 2015 Beginning Teachers Handbook states that heads should ensure that new teachers are well-acquainted with the rules and regulations governing professional conduct and competence, including the Code of Professional Conduct, Collective Agreement, and 2008 Education Act. Additionally, they should foster open communication and collaboration among beginning teachers and their colleagues, providing mentorship and professional development opportunities. They are encouraged to adopt a leadership style that promotes a supportive and collegial environment, involving openness to feedback and creating avenues for professional growth.
The 2012 Pre-tertiary Teacher Professional Development and Management in Ghana Policy Framework requires heads of schools to supervise and appraise the performance of teachers, support them and provide opportunities for teachers to improve their professional practice through School-based and Cluster-based In-service Training (Section 3.9). It further notes that heads of schools in collaboration with teachers shall be expected to plan school-based and cluster-based INSET on a regular basis after they have determined areas where improvements in teaching and learning are needed (Section 4.6.1).
Acting in accordance with the ethical principles of the profession: According to the 2015 Beginning Teachers Handbook, the head is expected to operate in a fair and ethical manner, ensuring that their actions align with principles of fairness and ethical conduct.
Others: The 2010-2020 Education Strategic Plan recommends that all headteachers should be class teachers to deal with understaffing.
2.2. Selection and working conditions
Degree requirements and prior teaching experience
Teachers are eligible to apply for the position of ‘head of school’ from ‘senior teacher I’ level, and may choose to be recommended for a career path in education management after the ‘principal teacher II’ level, as described in the 2012 Pre-Tertiary Teacher Professional Development and Management Policy Framework. Progression through the ranks occurs after completing at least three cumulative years at each rank and successfully passing an interview, therefore being a professional teacher with a minimum of 15 years of teaching experience becomes a pre-requisite for becoming a senior high school head.
If choosing an education management path, teachers must provide evidence of their management and leadership competencies and evidence of attendance in in-service training to further develop their management and administrative skills. The National Teacher Council is responsible for preparing detailed competency requirements for each career level and how they will be assessed for promotion.
The Ghana Education Service Council requires school heads in Ghana to meet the following criteria to be eligible as a senior high school head: be a professional graduate teacher with satisfactory work history and conduct within the GES; have served at the rank of deputy director for at least 2 years; have served as an assistant headmaster/mistress, unit head at the headquarters, or an equivalent position for at least 3 cumulative years; not be over the age of 55 years at the time he or she applies for the position. It further adds that the GES requires teachers to meet the following criteria to be eligible as a school head in the primary or junior high school: be a professional teacher with satisfactory work history and conduct within the GES; and have served at the rank of principal superintendent for at least 2 years.
The career path to the headship in the senior high school begins with certification as a professional graduate teacher, either through obtaining a bachelor’s degree in education or a bachelor’s degree in a field other than education, and 12 semester hours of prescribed courses in education (i.e., history of education, management of educational institutions, guidance and counselling, measurement and evaluation, psychology of education, philosophy of education, methodology).
The 1995 Ghana Education Service Act requires teachers in public pre-tertiary educational institutions to be registered by the Council. The Council, led by the Director-General, maintains a register of teachers, with registration contingent upon possessing the necessary teacher training certificate and maintaining professional conduct. The Director-General can refuse registration for reasons such as serious criminal offences or providing false information. Appeals against refusal can be made to the Council, which can uphold, modify, or reverse the decision, ultimately instructing registration if the appeal is successful.
The 2018-21 Education Sector Medium-Term Development Plan aims to develop and implement a process of certification of school administrators and leaders, in particular head teachers, to ensure effective school leadership and management.
Appointment decision
The Ghana Education Service (GES) is primarily responsible for the recruitment and appointment of school directors. As outlined in their functions, one of their roles is to ‘’recruit and post qualified teaching and non-teaching staff’’ which includes the hiring of school principals. According to the 1995 Ghana Education Service Act, the district directors of education are mandated to select and appoint qualified basic school head teachers based on interviews and portfolio assessments.
Employment equity measures
The 2015 National Gender Policy aims to “promote and enforce the availability of female teacher role models in schools and communities starting with rural and less endowed schools” and to “enhance the participation of women in leadership, governance, and decision-making at all levels”. The policy specifically supports the implementation of an Affirmative Action Law that will enable women and men participate equally in achieving at least the 40% women representation in politics, on Boards and at all levels of decision making. It aims to further develop guidelines for mainstreaming women into the decision making processes in all public structures.
According to the 2012 Pre-Tertiary Teacher Professional Development and Management Policy Framework, ‘female life course events such as marriage, pregnancy and childbirth shall not be used to prevent any candidate from promotion’.
Working conditions
Section 16 of the 1995 Ghana Education Service Act states that the Ghana National Association of Teachers and the Teachers Educational Workers Union of the Trades Union Congress are acknowledged as organizations to seek and promote the interests and welfare of their members within the service. According to the section, these unions have the right to make representations to the Council on matters related to the terms and conditions of service for their members. Additionally, the Minister, upon the advice of the Council, has the authority to approve the deduction of contributions from the salary of employees who are members of these organizations, provided that the employees give their written consent. The consent can be withdrawn by the employee with a six-month notice. This legislative framework suggests the existence and recognition of unions within the employment landscape.
The 2024 GES Salary Scale defines the salary scales of its members. A head of school in Ghana typically earns around 80,340 GHS (5,113.86 USD) per year, which this can range from the lowest average salary of about 44,800 GHS (2,851.64 USD) to the highest average salary of 119,900 GHS (7,631.96 USD).
The 2018–2030 Education Strategic Plan and 2018-21 Education Sector Medium-Term Development Plan propose that all school heads sign performance contracts, which is viewed as a method to ‘increase accountability’.
The 2012 Pre-Tertiary Teacher Professional Development and Management Policy Framework outlines the career path for teachers, moving from beginning teacher, to principal teacher II, principal teacher I, chief principal teacher, director II, and director I.
2.3. Leadership preparation and training
Pre-service training
Teachers appointed to be head of school must receive special training prior to assuming their role, as described in the 2012 Pre-Tertiary Teacher Professional Development and Management Policy Framework. The National Teachers’ Standards further specifies that school leaders should be required to meet their training needs for a specific role before assuming that role.
In partnership with the Ghana Education Service (GES) and the Ministry of Education of Ghana, the UNESCO Category II Centre of Excellence in Educational Leadership and Planning in Ghana, specifically at the University of Cape Coast, known as the Institute for Educational Planning and Administration (IEPA) offers programmes in school leadership, management, and planning, and organizes workshops and seminars focused on effective school administration practices. The institute is actively engaged in training and capacity building for educational leaders, managers, and planners through regular postgraduate programmes, short courses, as well as seminars and workshops.
Induction and in-service training
Strategies in the 2018–2030 Education Strategic Plan and 2018-21 Education Sector Medium-Term Development Plan include a focus on strengthening school management and leadership, with several objectives to train head teachers. This includes organizing annual training workshops for newly promoted school heads, and training head teachers in local resource mobilization to increase resources for school-level health and sanitation facilities, financial management, school reporting, and inclusive education.
The 2020 Framework for Professional Development of Teachers by the National Teaching Council specifies the content areas relevant for professional development programmes for educational leaders. Depending on the rank of the school leaders, topics are commended for their professional growth and development. Example of content prescribed include the following: Conflict resolution at school and district levels; Clinical supervision in schools; Leadership standards; Promoting teacher motivation for improved quality education; Basic principles in planning, data collection and management; Demonstrating understanding of roles of local government policies; and Knowledge of procurement laws.
3. Teachers, parents and students
3.1. School management committees and boards
The 2020 Pre-Tertiary Education Act, 2017 Code of Conduct for Staff of the Ghana Education Service and the 2015 Beginning Teachers Handbook refer to the School Management Committee.
The 1994 School Management Committee (SMC) Handbook describes the roles and composition of the SMC, while the 2012 School Management Committee Training Manual provides a basic guide for the training of SMCs. The SMC represents the entire school community and includes key stakeholders such as the District Director of Education, Headteacher, District Assembly representative, Unit Committee representative, Chief's appointee, Educational Unit representative (if applicable), two teaching staff members (one from primary and one from junior high school), Past Pupils’ Association Representative (if available), PTA Representative, and optionally co-opted members for specific roles. The SMC serves as a community-based institution aimed at enhancing community participation in education delivery, operating under the District Education Oversight Committee (DEOC) and in collaboration with education directorates and schools. Its primary role is to assist the headteacher in organizing and managing school activities effectively, participating in priority setting and goal development, encouraging community involvement, and reviewing school progress. The SMC holds regular meetings, develops education plans, approves expenditures and projects, mobilizes community resources, and reports to education authorities.
The 2020 Pre-Tertiary Education Act stipulates that the Education Service shall establish a School Management Committee for the management of a public basic school and a Board of Governors for the management of a public senior high school. It further stipulates that a School Management Committee or a Board of Governors shall ensure that a public basic or senior high school is managed in accordance with laid down rules and regulations of the Education Service (Section 37).
The 2017 Code of Conduct for Staff of the Ghana Education Service outlines the establishment of disciplinary committees at various levels within the education system. The composition of the school-level disciplinary Committee is detailed for both Basic Level and Secondary Level. For the Basic Level, the School level committee includes the headteacher or their representative, a School Management Committee (SMC) Member, a union representative of the alleged offender, and a secretary/recorder. For the secondary level, the committee consists of the headmaster/headmistress or their representative, an assistant head, the departmental head of the alleged offender, a representative of the governing board, a union representative of the alleged offender, and a secretary/recorder (art. 9.2).
3.2. Middle leaders
The 2023 National Teachers’ Standards states that “teachers are required to have a passion for teaching and leadership, engage with members not only in the school community but also in the wider community, and act as potential agents of change”. Teachers are expected to actively engage with School Management Committees (SMCs) and Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs). This involvement includes attending meetings, contributing insights, and collaborating with these bodies to enhance the educational experience for students. Additionally, teachers should advocate for the importance of educating girls and encourage parental support for their children's education within these forums. Effective leadership qualities should be evident within classrooms and throughout the school environment. This includes assigning roles equally to both genders, actively participating in school-related activities, and supporting colleagues and peers. They should possess skills in leadership for learning, policy development, strategic planning, and change management. Continuous professional development is encouraged, along with proficiency in communication, financial regulations, and labor laws. Teachers should also demonstrate knowledge of education project management, stakeholder analysis, and quality assurance systems.
The 2012 Pre-Tertiary Teacher Professional Development and Management Policy Framework refers to teachers with additional leadership responsibilities, including senior teacher II, senior teacher I, principal teacher II, principal teacher I, chief principal teacher, director II, and director I. The policy framework additionally refers to ‘curriculum leaders’ under the supervision of the school head.
3.3. Parents
The 2015 Beginning Teachers Handbook states that the Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) can discuss the welfare of the teachers and the students.
According to the 1994 School Management Committee (SMC) Handbook, the Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) is established on the principle that both parents and teachers share responsibility for a child's holistic development. It serves as a non-governmental organization, distinct from the school's day-to-day administration but represented on the School Management Committee (SMC). The PTA aims to promote child welfare, assist in school funding, raise educational standards, advocate for child protection laws, and foster cooperation between parents and educators. Members include parents/guardians and teachers of the school, automatically enrolled by their association with the institution. The PTA's duties involve supplementing government efforts in education by providing infrastructure, materials, transportation, welfare services, and support for discipline and enrollment drives. Although separate entities, the SMC and PTA collaborate closely, with the PTA's contributions often supporting development projects initiated by the SMC.
3.4. Students
The 2018 National Pre-Tertiary Education Curriculum Framework refers to the “Student Representative Councils” which “should be used for learning dialogue in Ghana’s schools”.
4. Governance
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
The 2015 Beginning Teachers Handbook underscores the authority of school heads in managing human resources and budgets to ensure alignment with Ghana Education Service directives and efficient resource utilization. While decision-making responsibilities are specified by education laws and policies, inclusive processes are encouraged through the school management committee.
According to the 2018 National Pre-Tertiary Education Curriculum Framework, teachers and headteachers, in collaboration with the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA), National Teaching Council (NTC), and National Inspectorate Board (NIB), are responsible for ensuring that the selection of teaching and learning resources aligns with the expected student learning outcomes and standards outlined in Ghanaian curriculum frameworks. They must take into account the specific needs of learners, avoid exposing them to offensive or obscene materials, and ensure that the resources are age-appropriate. Additionally, the selection process should consider various factors such as the context, impact on the learners' age group, literary or educational merit, author's intention, parental reactions, standards of morality, and the impact on individuals from diverse ethnic, religious, social, and cultural backgrounds. It affirms that Headteachers must ensure that the school implements the policies and procedures that comply with these curriculum guidelines that the school community is informed of possible controversial texts and that learners and their parents have a right to object to teaching and learning resources under the provision of the ministry of education’s guidelines.
The 2015 Education Bill delineates the framework for human resource management pertaining to head teachers and staff in basic education schools. The Director of the Department of Education, Youth and Sports, acting on behalf of the Head of the Local Government Service and guided by the recommendations of the Head of the Education Section, assumes the crucial role of overseeing the appointment, promotion, discipline, and dismissal of head teachers and staff within the district's basic education schools. However, the qualifications, standards and other criteria for the appointment of the head teacher and staff of a basic education school is determined by the Service Council (art.60).
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
According to the 2020 School Establishment and Inspection Policy (SEaIP), management and supervisory methods were needed to strengthen discipline against underperforming headteachers and teachers while recognizing, supporting, and developing those who were performing well. It affirms that there has been a modification in the system, with a separate body now responsible for teacher appraisal systems and another responsible for school inspections.
The 2015 Education Bill and the 2020 Education Regulatory Bodies Act No.1023 empower the National Schools Inspectorate Authority (NaSIA) to establish Inspection Panels which focus on: the quality of (i) leadership and management of pre-tertiary educational institutions and (ii) teaching and learning provided by pre-tertiary educational institutions. These panels are tasked with conducting periodic inspections to assess and enforce quality standards in pre-tertiary schools and therefore evaluate various aspects of schools, including the quality of leadership and management, the standard of teaching and learning, academic attainment, available facilities, and the relationships between the school and relevant stakeholders.
The 2020 Inspection Handbook outlines the evaluation process for headteachers, beginning with the selection and preparation of inspectors and initial communication with key stakeholders, including the headteacher. A pre-inspection meeting is conducted to discuss the purpose, principles, and logistics of the inspection, with emphasis on diverse representation in stakeholder meetings. During the inspection, classes are observed, and data on facilities and cleanliness is gathered. Daily meetings are held between the inspection team and school leadership to discuss findings and evaluations, ensuring effective communication and collaboration. Inspectors assess school leadership based on four indicators: clarity of the school's vision, support for teaching and learning, efforts to improve the school, and relationships with the SMC/Board and PTA, each further evaluated with quality sub-indicators. Inspectors use the Quality Indicator Descriptions for School Leadership (table 4.2.1) alongside the information collected during meetings to asses head teachers.
According to the 2012 Pre-Tertiary Teacher Professional Development and Management Policy Framework, the head teacher’s appraisal must place emphasis on evidence of effectiveness in managing teaching to achieve whole school development.
The 2017 Code of Conduct for Staff of the Ghana Education Service states that “disciplinary hearings relating to heads of institutions shall be handled by the District Disciplinary Committees and final authorization of sanctions shall lie with the GES Council” (7.7). It also outlines the composition of the District Level Disciplinary Committee: chaired by the District Director of Education or a Representative not below the rank of Deputy Director. Other members include the Union Representative of the Alleged Offender, a Representative of the Education level of the Alleged Offender from organizations, the District Social Welfare Officer or their Representative, a Representative of Parents in the District (Parent member of the PTAs), a Representative of DEOC (District Education Oversight Committee), and a designated Secretary responsible for administrative tasks. This diverse composition ensures representation from various stakeholders involved in education at the district level, contributing to a comprehensive and fair disciplinary process.
The 2018-21 Education Sector Medium-Term Development Plan aims to design, cost out, budget for and implement an accountability framework for basic education as part of the wider sector accountability framework (including for head teachers).
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
Teachers are assessed on two levels. Firstly, the headteacher, as outlined in the 2015 Beginning Teachers Handbook, holds significant influence over the evaluation of teachers, particularly beginning teachers. The headteacher not only plays a role in their hiring but also determines whether they receive favorable evaluations, impacting their professional standing within the school. This dynamic highlights the tension between the supportive mentorship role of the headteacher and their responsibility as evaluators of teacher performance. This is further supported by the 2012 Pre-Tertiary Teacher Professional Development and Management Policy Framework, which states that heads of school, with certification by the National Teaching Council, shall supervise and appraise teacher performance, support them, and provide them with opportunities to improve their professional practice. Head teachers are expected to use the National Teachers’ Standards as a key reference point in their assessment of teachers.
Secondly, the 2020 Inspection Handbook emphasizes a structured inspection process conducted by external inspectors. These inspectors observe English, Mathematics, and Science lessons across year groups and classes, aiming for comprehensive coverage based on accurate school timetables. Inspectors provide confidential observations and balanced feedback to teachers, ensuring a fair and thorough evaluation process.
The 2015 Education Bill affirms that the directors and supervisors within the regional and district directorates of education and the education units shall undertake routine inspections of schools to ensure the maintenance of standards of performance in teaching and learning in accordance with the directives or guidelines of the Inspectorate Council.
This profile was reviewed by Dr. Usman Kojo Abonyi of the University of Ghana.
