NON-STATE ACTORS IN EDUCATION
2.2 Non-state education provision
3.1 Regulations by distinct levels of education
- Early childhood care and education (Entry/Establishment ○ Financial operation ○ Quality of teaching and learning ○ Equitable access ○ Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability)
- Primary and secondary education (Entry/Establishment ○ Financial operation ○ Quality of teaching and learning ○ Equitable access ○ Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability)
- Tertiary education (Entry/Establishment ○ Financial operation ○ Quality of teaching and learning ○ Equitable access ○ Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability)
3.3 Supplementary private tutoring
The Education Act of 1994 (last amended in 2020) refers to “non-government” and “faith-based” schools, without referring to non-state actors specifically. A non-government school is defined as a “school which is not a government school, whether or not is receives aid from the state”. The Council for Higher Education Act of 2006 similarly does not refer to non-state actors, but broadly defines a “private institution of higher education” as an institution “that is not established by the state”. Whereas the two acts that govern the education system do not mention non-state actors, the Primary and Secondary Education Statistics Report 2019 categorizes non-government schools in terms of ownership, which includes church/mission, private company, private individual, farm, trust, mine, and other.
2.1 State education provision
State schools
Most education (76% of schools) at primary (9 years, ages 4 – 12) and secondary (6 years, ages 13 – 18) level is provided by the state in Zimbabwe. Primary education is categorized into infant (ages 4 – 5) and junior level (ages 6 – 12), while secondary education is categorized into lower secondary (ages 13 – 16) and upper secondary level (ages 17 – 18). Education is compulsory for 13 years (ages 4 – 16), and is not free, but funded by the government and households (through fees). According to the Education Sector Analysis 2020, the School Financing Policy 2019-30 (in draft) plans to introduce fully-state funded, free education for all Zimbabwean citizens at primary and lower secondary level by 2030.
Non-state managed, state schools
No information was found.
Non-state funded, state schools
No information was found.
2.2 Non-state education provision
Independent, non-state schools
Private schools are independent non-state schools run by private individuals (29% of non-government schools) and companies (18% of non-government schools) that do not receive any aid from the state. These schools are primarily funded through student fees and follow the national curriculum.
State-funded (government-aided), non-state schools
The most prominent type of non-state schools in Zimbabwe at primary (33% of non-state schools) and secondary (44% of non-state schools) level are faith-based schools run by religious (church) organizations or institutions. These schools operate on a non-profit basis and are funded through student fees, while the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (MoPSE) funds their teacher salaries and certain other operational costs through grants.
Contracted, non-state schools
No information was found.
2.3 Other types of schools
Satellite schools
Satellite schools are semi-autonomous schools run by senior teachers that have not yet met the minim requirements for registration, but have applied for “satellite” authority under the nearest primary or secondary school. These schools were mainly established in Zimbabwe as result of the population resettlement during the Land Reform Program and mainly cater to marginalized populations. According to the Annual Education Statistics Report, satellite schools constituted almost 16% of primary schools and 30% of secondary schools in 2019.
Homeschooling
While no specific reference is made to homeschooling in official documents, the Education Amendment Act 2020 does not specifically require children to attend school under the “compulsory education” section, while parents are obliged to provide their children access to education within these levels.
During the COVID-19 school closures announced in March 2020, the MoPSE aimed to ensure learning continuity through Alternative Learning Approaches, which included radio programming, online learning, and the provision of supplementary learning materials. Moreover, Accelerated Learning and Catch-Up Programs were developed to successfully reintegrate learners to schools.
Market contracted (Voucher schools)
No information was found.
Unregistered/Unrecognized schools
The Annual Education Statistics Report 2019 distinguishes between “registered” and “unregistered” schools in Zimbabwe, with unregistered schools accounting for 5% and 2% of all primary and secondary schools respectively. According to MoPSE estimates, Manicaland province had the higher number of unregistered primary schools in 2019, while Harare and Bulawayo provinces had the most unregistered secondary schools. In some areas, the number of unregistered schools outnumbers that of registered schools. According to government data, Harare has 205 registered schools and 219 unregistered schools, the latter of which are operating illegally and absent of government oversight. Many of these schools are being established in areas where there are no state schools, with the government claiming it cannot close them down as it “would leave entire neighbourhoods without other options for education”. In these cases, officials seek to formalize the schools and help them meet minimum standards, while in others (where there is a registered alternative) unregistered schools are closed down, with their students being enrolled in nearby registered schools. Satellite schools are claimed to have a “semi-registered” status.
There are two ministries responsible for the supervision and regulation of both state and non-state education provision in Zimbabwe: the MoPSE (responsible for pre-primary to secondary education) and the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education Science and Technology Development (MoHTESTD), responsible for tertiary education (with the Zimbabwe Council for Higher Education regulating higher education).
Education management is partially decentralized to Provincial and District Education Offices, which assist the Ministries in their administrative functions.
Vision: While non-state education provision does not have its own department or specific legislature, the Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No.20) Act 2013 states that “every person has the right to establish and maintain, at their own expense, independent educational institutions of reasonable standards, provided they do not discriminate on any ground prohibited by this Constitution”. The Education Sector Strategic Plan 2016-20 views the non-state sector as “important” in education provision and able to assist the government in its development objectives.
3.1 Regulations by distinct levels of education
Registration and approval: See Multi-level regulations.
Licence: See Multi-level regulations.
Profit-making: See Multi-level regulations.
Taxes and subsidies: See Multi-level regulations.
Quality of teaching and learning
Curriculum and education standards: See Multi-level regulations.
Teaching profession: See Multi-level regulations.
Fee-setting: See Multi-level regulations.
Admission selection and processes: See Multi-level regulations.
Policies for vulnerable groups: See Multi-level regulations.
Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability
Reporting requirements: See Multi-level regulations.
Inspection: See Multi-level regulations.
Child assessment: See Multi-level regulations.
Sanctions: See Multi-level regulations.
Registration and approval: See Multi-level regulations.
Licence: See Multi-level regulations.
Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH): The Education Amendment Act 2020 requires all schools to meet minimum water, health and sanitation requirements, which include providing sanitary ware and other menstrual health facilities for all girls in state and non-state schools that promote menstrual health. The amendment additionally provides for the appointment of sexual and reproductive health personnel at all schools. Moreover, the School Development Committees Handbook states that all pre-primary to secondary schools must have “adequate toilet facilities” (based on enrolment and number of staff), in addition to clean potable water (with no specific mention of whether toilets should be separated by sex).
Profit-making: See Multi-level regulations.
Taxes and subsidies: See Multi-level regulations.
Quality of teaching and learning
Curriculum and education standards: See Multi-level regulations.
Textbooks and learning materials: All state-funded schools are provided with learning and teaching materials by the government. No regulation was found on the teaching materials in non-funded schools.
Teaching profession: See Multi-level regulations.
Corporal punishment: The Education Amendment Act 2020 does not explicitly prohibit corporal punishment, but requires all schools in Zimbabwe (whether state or non-state) to adopt a disciplinary policy that prohibits the “physical or psychological torture, or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment” of students, while all teachers are prohibited from beating a child.
Other safety measures and Covid-19: During the COVID-19 pandemic, all schools (state and non-state) were required to follow the Standard Operating Procedures for the Prevention of COVID-19 and Other Influenza Like Illnesses in the Primary and Secondary Education Sector, and the Standard Operating Procedures for the Opening of Schools.
Fee-setting: See Multi-level regulations.
Admission selection and processes: See Multi-level regulations.
Policies for vulnerable groups: See Multi-level regulations.
Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability
School board: According to the Education Amendment Act 2006, all registered schools in Zimbabwe are required to establish a School Development Committee and a School Parents Assembly, both of which must be comprised of elected parents or guardians of students enrolled in the school and teachers (with School Development Committees additionally including the School Head and a representative of the school owner).
Reporting requirements: See Multi-level regulations.
School inspection: See Multi-level regulations.
Student assessment:
Diplomas and degrees: The Zimbabwe School Examinations Council is responsible for conferring and approving certificates, diplomas and degrees to all students who have passed the national examinations.
Sanctions: See Multi-level regulations.
Tertiary education in Zimbabwe is provided by state and private (non-state) institutions, both of which are regulated by the Zimbabwe Council for Higher Education (ZIMCHE), established as a body corporate under the MoHTESTD in the Council for Higher Education Act of 2006. According to the ZIMCHE Annual Report, there were 14 state and 10 private higher education institutions in Zimbabwe in 2018, with state institutions covering 87% of total enrolments.
Registration and approval: To establish a private HEI in Zimbabwe, an application must be made by “any person” to the Chief Executive of the ZIMCHE, accompanied by the draft charter of the institution, a registration fee, and any other required documents. All private HEIs are required to be registered under the Council for Higher Education Act of 2006.
License: If the ZIMCHE is satisfied that the applicant fulfils the minimum criteria, a provisional registration (valid for 12 months) is issued which authorizes the institution to set up a governing body and begin developing its facilities. If the institution complies with all the minimum standards after 12 months, the ZIMCHE makes a recommendation to the President (through the MoHTESTD) to grant a charter and fully register the institution as a private HEI. Once registered, the institution is required to be established as a body corporate. If any private HEI is found to be not be registered under the Council for Higher Education Act of 2006, the owner will be liable to a fine not exceeding 19,200 ZWL (53.05 USD) and/or imprisonment for up to two years.
Profit-making: Profit-making is not prohibited in regulations, with no regulation on profit-making found.
Taxes and subsidies : According to the Council for Higher Education Act of 2006, the ZIMCHE provides grants to HEIs in Zimbabwe to assist institutions in specific projects, scholarships, and in training staff through an established Higher Education Fund.
Quality of teaching and learning
Curriculum and education standards: All courses and programs offered by HEIs are required to meet minimum education standards and be accredited (officially recognized) by the ZIMCHE (which evaluates curricula and academic programs on a regular basis).
Teaching profession: According to the Zimbabwe National Qualifications Framework, all lecturers employed in HEIs (whether state or non-state) are required to have a qualification higher than the one they teach, while all institutions must make arrangement for continuous staff development.
Fee-setting: Fee scales are only regulated in state institutions, with no regulation found on fee-setting in private institutions.
Admission selection and processes: While the admission processes in private HEIs are not referred to in the Council for Higher Education Act of 2006, the Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No.20) Act 2013 prohibits any unfair discrimination in any educational institution (whether state or non-state) on the grounds of nationality, race, color, social or ethnic origin, language, class, religion, gender, sex, and disability.
Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability
Board: While the management and governance structure of each HEI is required to be approved upon registration, there is no regulation on the establishment of any specific management board or its composition.
Reporting requirements: Each institution is required to submit an annual report to the ZIMCHE detailing their activities and a detailed assessment of the steps taken towards the achievement of their objectives. The ZIMCHE then analyses these reports and makes recommendations and comments. HEIs are additionally required to develop self-quality assurance mechanisms through self-evaluation of their own facilities, equipment, governance structures, teaching, programs and research.
Inspection: While the MoHTESTD is responsible for developing quality assurance standards that all HEIs in Zimbabwe must adhere to, the ZIMCHE is authorized to ensure the minimum standards are being complied with through the Higher Education Quality Assurance Committee, and accrediting institutions based on their staff qualifications, facilities, financial resources, and equipment. The ZIMCHE specifically conducts accreditation visits and quality audits “at any time” with so-called Peer Reviewers (industry professionals) to verify that institutions comply with the minimum standards.
Assessment: While each HEI may determine their own assessment and examination system, the ZIMCHE verifies that all institutions meet the minimum standards in examinations.
Diplomas and degrees: All HEIs that have been registered and accredited with the ZIMCHE are authorized to confer diplomas and degrees to students.
Sanctions: If at any time the ZIMCHE finds an institution to be in breach of regulations or its charter, it may advise the MoHTESTD to revoke the charter and close the institution (provided that any qualifications awarded before the revocation remain unaffected).
3.2 Multi-level regulations
This section covers regulations for non-state education provision from pre-primary to secondary education, as early childhood education (2 years, ages 4 – 5) is included within the compulsory primary education structure and is regulated by the MoPSE. According to the Annual Education Statistics Report 2019, almost all (99%) primary schools in 2019 have introduced pre-primary education in their school.
Registration and approval: While there is no specific mention of who exactly can establish a non-state school, the responsible authority is required to make an application for registration to the Secretary of Primary and Secondary Education (through the relevant District Education Office) based on a prescribed form. According to the Education Amendment Act 2020, private schools (in contrast to faith-based schools) are required to pay an annual registration fee, which if not paid, will be liable to a fine of up to 4,800 ZWL (13.26 USD) or imprisonment for up to two years. Schools must additionally meet the required student-teacher ratios (applicable to all schools).
License: If the Secretary is satisfied that the proposed premises are adequate, the teaching staff are qualified, and the finances are sufficient, the application will be approved and the applicant will be issued a certificate of registration. If the applicant partially fulfils the requirements, they may be issued a certificate of provisional registration and given three months to comply with all the standards (which will be cancelled if not complied with).
Profit-making: While no regulation was found regarding profit-making in non-state schools, only non-profit faith-based schools receive government assistance.
Taxes and subsidies: The government may make annual grants to any registered school in Zimbabwe (excluding non-state schools run by private individuals and companies) which is disbursed to the School’s Development Committee to cover operational costs and teacher salaries. These grants are subject to conditions determined by the Minister for each school, which if not complied with, may result in the loss of the grant.
Quality of teaching and learning
Curriculum and education standards: Non-state schools in Zimbabwe are required to follow the national curriculum developed by the MoPSE and take the national examinations set by the Zimbabwe School Examinations Council. Students at pre-primary level must be taught in their mother tongue, while the Education Amendment Act 2020 states that the three main languages of Zimbabwe (English, Shona and Ndebele) must be taught in all schools from grade one.
Teaching profession: The Secretary of Primary and Secondary Education sets the minimum qualifications for all teaching staff in Zimbabwe based on each education level, which must be complied by both state and non-state schools. The Secretary must be notified of any appointment of new teachers, which must be pre-approved according to minimum standards. If any school employs a teacher that has not been approved by the Secretary, the Secretary may order the termination of that teacher’s employment. State schoolteachers are part of the Public Service (under the Public Service Commission), which regulates their working conditions and conditions of service. The working conditions of non-state school teachers are covered under the national labour law. The Education Act provides for the Minister to make specific regulations for teachers not covered under the Public Service Act, in the event of “any conflict or inconsistency with regulations made in terms of the Labour Relations Act”.
Fee-setting: Any fees charged by non-state schools in Zimbabwe must be pre-approved by the Secretary, while no school may increase their fees unless an application is made justifying the proposed increase and approved by the Secretary and the School Parents Assembly. If any school contravenes these regulations, they will be liable to a fine equivalent to the excess amount charged and/or imprisonment for up to 6 months. The Education Amendment Act 2020 additionally prohibits all schools from expelling students due to inability to pay the school fees.
Admission selection and processes: According to the Education Amendment Act 2020, no student may be discriminated against in the admissions process of any school on the grounds of nationality, race, color, ethnic or social origin, language, religion, political affiliation, opinion, culture, age, marital status, sex, gender, pregnancy, disability, or socioeconomic status. Any school which contravenes this provision will be liable to a fine up to 4,800 ZWL (13.26 USD) and/or imprisonment for up to one year.
Policies for vulnerable groups: All schools in Zimbabwe are required to provide infrastructure and equipment that are suitable for students with disabilities. Moreover, all registered schools must submit a detailed plan to the Secretary highlighting how the school will advance the rights of students with disabilities.
Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability
Reporting requirements: All schools are required to keep up-to-date accounts and records of fees levied and any grants received, in addition to any other information that the Secretary may require.
Inspection: The MoPSE is responsible for the quality assurance of all non-state schools in Zimbabwe. School inspections are carried out by a Ministry-appointed inspector, which may enter a non-state school at any reasonable time (with or without notice), make any relevant inquiries, and examine if all standards are being complied with.
Assessment: The assessment and examination system of all schools in Zimbabwe (irrespective of ownership) are determined by the Secretary of Primary and Secondary Education and administered by the Zimbabwe School Examinations Council.
Sanctions: If any individual obstructs or hinders the investigation, they will be liable to a fine of 4,800 ZWL (13.26 USD), while the school’s certificate of registration may be cancelled if the minimum standards are not met. Moreover, the MoPSE is authorized to close a school if it does not meet the required the registration standards. Finally, if any school is found to be operating without a valid license, the owner will be liable to a fine of up to 4,800 ZWL (13.26 USD).
3.3 Supplementary private tutoring
Supplementary private tuition in Zimbabwe, often referred to as “extra lessons” or “holiday coaching”, was prohibited by the government in 2014. Private tuition centres are known as “correspondence” or “independent colleges” and are registered under the MoPSE. These colleges cater to students who have completed primary education and are provided with private tuition courses (by correspondence or face-to-face) for a fee.
All independent or correspondence colleges established for reward in Zimbabwe are required to be registered under the Education Act by making an application to the Secretary responsible for primary and secondary education. If any independent or correspondence college is found to be operating without a valid license by the MoPSE, the owner will be liable to a fine of up to 4,800 ZWL (13.26 USD).
Financial operation and quality
Independent or correspondence colleges must only offer private tuition to students who have completed primary education, while the MoPSE approves the qualifications of teachers employed in these centres, which must be “suitably qualified” according to the course being taught.
In 2020, all teachers were required to sign a document recognizing that “no extra lessons will be conducted on school premises without the Minister’s approval”, as the practice had been prohibited in 2014.
