School leadership
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
2.2. Selection and working conditions
2.3. Leadership preparation and training
3. Teachers, parents and students
3.1. School management committees and boards
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
1. Terminology
The 1978 National Education Act (amended in 1995, 2002 and 2016) of Mainland Tanzania refers to head teachers, headmasters, managers and other heads of schools. The Act defines a manager as a person who is responsible for the administration and management of that school or of the activities of the pupils in that school. A headmaster is defined in the Public Schools (Advisory Boards) Order (subsidiary legislation to the Education Act) as including the headmistress, principal and head-teacher of any school for which a Board has been established.
In the 2020 National Framework for Teachers Continuous Professional Development, educational administrators are ‘all actors who supervise the implementation of teacher continuous professional development, including Regional Education Officers, District Education Officers, School Quality Assurance Officers, Teacher Colleges Principals, Ward Education Officers and Head of Schools. The head of a school is defined as the ‘head teacher or headmaster/headmistress’, while the school management team refers to the ‘head of school, deputy head, academic master/mistress, discipline master/mistress, quality assurance chairperson at the school level, and guidance and counsellor teacher’.
The 2023 Head Teacher's Guidebook distinguishes between school leadership and management, while the 2009 Guidelines for School Supervision of the United Republic of Tanzania define school supervision as ‘the act of overseeing the work of the school and providing professional guidance and advice to teachers. Supervision is a collaborative course of action where the supervisor works with the head of school, teachers and the school committee/board to improve pedagogical and administrative activities at school’.
The 2018 Teachers Professional Board Act of Mainland Tanzania defines a professional teacher as a ‘teacher who is trained or prepared for teaching including professional workers involved in teaching-related tasks such as educational administration, planning, quality assurance and other related matters of professional application’.
2. School principals
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
Competency standards and leadership frameworks and guidelines
The 2023 Head Teacher's Guidebook and 2009 Guidelines for School Supervision define several roles and responsibilities for head teachers in the United Republic of Tanzania.
The 2023 Head Teacher's Guidebook was developed by the Agency for the Development of Educational Management (ADEM), with the support of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, as an important resource aimed at strengthening the management of teaching and learning in primary schools.
The 2009 Guidelines for School Supervision were developed by the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training as a tool to assist school heads and ward education coordinators in implementing school supervision in order to enhance school performance and ensure quality education delivery at school level. Part one includes specific guidelines for the head of the school, including expected characteristics and responsibilities.
The roles of head teachers are additionally outlined in the 1978 National Education Act, 2016/17 – 2020/21 Education Sector Development Plan and 2020 Guidelines for Teachers Deployment in Pre-Primary and Primary Schools of Mainland Tanzania and 2017/18–2021/22 Zanzibar Education Development Plan II.
Roles
Setting expectations/objectives: According to the 2009 Guidelines for School Supervision, the head of the school is responsible for overseeing the formulation and implementation of the Whole School Development Plan and inspiring the implementation of the school’s vision. Schools are expected to set targets in their school development plans which should be attained.
In Tanzania Mainland, the 2020 Guidelines for Teachers Deployment in Pre-Primary and Primary Schools similarly highlight that the head teacher is responsible for preparing the school development plan and submitting school data to the ward education officer. The 2016/17 – 2020/21 Education Sector Development Plan also expects the school management team (including the head teacher) to prepare school development plans and budgets which are aligned with the key strategies of the education sector plan.
Developing teaching and learning: The head of the school is responsible for supervising curriculum implementation, conducting administrative and pedagogical supervision to ensure quality education, reviewing teaching and learning in the classroom and giving feedback, and participating actively in introducing changes and innovations in the school, as described in the 2023 Head Teacher's Guidebook and 2009 Guidelines for School Supervision.
Similar duties are outlined in the 2016/17 – 2020/21 Education Sector Development Plan of Mainland Tanzania, which states that the school management team (including the head teacher and deputy head) is responsible for supervising high-quality teaching and learning, receiving school supervision and inspection reports and implementing inspection recommendations, tracking learner achievements, ensuring a conducive teaching and learning environment, and preparing quarterly school performance reports on learning achievements.
Promoting collaboration: The 2023 Head Teacher's Guidebook and 2009 Guidelines for School Supervision expect heads of schools to promote teamwork and mobilize different school-level supervision actors; involving teachers, non-teaching staff, students, school committees, parents, and other stakeholders in carrying out school development activities. Head teachers are additionally responsible for communicating with parents regularly about their children’s progress. The 2020 National Framework for Teachers Continuous Professional Development similarly highlight that the head of the school is responsible for facilitating and coordinating inter-school collaborations.
Supporting staff development: Head teachers are responsible for promoting and managing staff development and training, as described in the 2023 Head Teacher's Guidebook and 2009 Guidelines for School Supervision. The 2020 National Framework for Teachers Continuous Professional Development additionally highlights that head teachers are expected to identify continuous professional development needs at the school; integrate continuous professional development activities within the school development plan; and facilitate, observe, mentor and support teacher development activities. The continuous professional development needs of teachers are assessed in a variety of ways, including classroom observation, school-based assessment, and students’ performance. Heads of schools are required to identify teachers’ competency gaps for training through daily school monitoring.
The 2017/18–2021/22 Zanzibar Education Development Plan II similarly aims for school heads to be supportive of teacher and school development.
Acting in accordance with the ethical principles of the profession: The 2009 Guidelines for School Supervision highlight that school supervisors (including head teachers) are expected to adhere to certain ethical principles, including being truthful and transparent while discharging duties; adhering to confidentiality principles; discharging duties with integrity; respecting all those given managerial duties in the school; and being a good example to teachers, students and the community. The 2023 Head Teacher's Guidebook additionally expects school heads to act with integrity, justice, and equality principles.
The 2018 Teachers Professional Board Act of Mainland Tanzania similarly requires all teachers (including professional teachers responsible for school administration) to adhere to the Code of Conduct and Ethics determined by the Teachers Professional Board (Article 67).
Others: There are several additional roles outlined for head teachers, including ensuring inclusive and diverse education, supervising management issues such as financial and human resources, and ensuring cross-cutting issues like environmental education, gender issues, HIV and AIDS are part of the teaching and learning activities and supervising and maintaining output and outcomes in terms of access, improved retention, equity, knowledge, skills and attitudes, as outlined in the 2020 National Framework for Teachers Continuous Professional Development and 2009 Guidelines for School Supervision.
According to the 2016 amendment of the 1978 National Education Act, every head of school is additionally required to submit a detailed quarterly report of cases of marriages and pregnancies and legal actions taken against the offenders to the Commissioner.
2.2. Selection and working conditions
Degree requirements and prior teaching experience
The 2022 Guidelines on the Selection of Education Leaders of the United Republic of Tanzania describe the process for the selection of education leaders at the school, ward, council and regional levels. Head teachers at primary schools must have a diploma in education, while head teachers at secondary schools must have a degree in education. Additional qualifications for primary and secondary school heads are similar, requiring candidates to have taught in a primary or secondary school (respectively) for at least 5 years, and have never been guilty of a criminal offence. Candidates must also be fair and have good relationships with the community, have demonstrated good performance in management and public service, and the ability to use the internet and certain digital tools.
All teachers (including head teachers) in mainland Tanzania must comply with the 2019 Employment and Labour Relations Act and adhere to centralized requirements in teacher qualifications. According to the 1978 National Education Act, all teachers must additionally be registered and licensed as teacher by the Minister of Education and registered under the 2018 Teachers’ Professional Board Act.
Appointment decision
According to the 2002 Education (Schools and General Provisions) Regulations, the selection of head teachers is done through special regional committees, which nominate candidates and make recommendations on appointments. The 2022 Guidelines on the Selection of Education Leaders describe the process of appointment in detail. Head teachers at primary schools are appointed by the director of the local government authority based on the recommendations submitted by the special committee. For head teachers at secondary schools, the appointment is made by the regional administrative secretary similarly based on the recommendations submitted by the regional committee.
Employment equity measures
According to the 2022 Guidelines on the Selection of Education Leaders, the regional committees responsible for the appointment of head teachers must not discriminate during the appointment process based on ethnicity, gender, religion, or region.
Initiatives under the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (MKUKUTA) of the United Republic of Tanzania further aim to increase the percentage of women in leadership positions in the public service, with the government having developed an affirmative action policy that aims to combat the overrepresentation of one gender in employment positions (including head teachers).
Working conditions
Head teachers and teachers are considered public servants, with pay levels based on central Public Service pay scales, the Public Service Act and 2022 Public Service Regulations of the United Republic, and the 2019 Employment and Labour Relations Act of Mainland Tanzania. The Ministry of Education sets the pay levels for teachers, as well as the additional allowances for teachers appointed as head teachers and other roles of responsibility within schools. Members of the teaching service (including head teachers) may be employed on contract; temporary appointment; part-time appointment; acting appointment; permanent appointment; or appointment on promotion, as established in the 2022 Public Service Regulations.
The Tanzania Teachers Union was formed in 1993 to advocate for and promote the rights of teachers in Mainland Tanzania. TTU branches exist in all districts and most schools have representatives and/or receive visits from TTU representatives. The TTU has a dedicated commission for managing teachers, head teachers and Ward Education Officer.
The Zanzibar Teachers Union was established in 2002, following on enactment of the 1995 Labour Act, which separated Zanzibar and Tanzania Mainland in terms of labour matters. The Union represents all teachers in government schools, irrespective of the level of teaching.
2.3. Leadership preparation and training
Pre-service training
The 2016/17 – 2020/21 Education Sector Development Plan of Mainland Tanzania aims to revise the recruitment criteria for school leaders, suggesting all school heads to be certified in school leadership and management as a form of pre-service training. According to the Agency for the Development of Educational Management, longer courses currently offered include a one year Certificate in Education Leadership, Management and Administration, a two year Diploma in Education Management and Administration, and a two year Diploma in School Quality Assurance.
Induction and in-service training
The 2009 Public Service Standing Orders have made induction programmes for newly appointed public service employees mandatory across Mainland Tanzania. The statute states that every employer (including the Ministry of Education) is responsible for planning and conducting induction and orientation programmes, which provide newly appointed employees with knowledge of the basic concepts and laws about the public service. An education circular in 2011 further made induction programs mandatory for all newly appointed public servants (including teachers). According to the Ministry of Education, induction for newly appointed school heads is offered as a short course in which head teachers are expected to read the modules extensively, along with any other relevant materials. In 2017, the government emphasized that public service employers are required to provide orientation training to new employees in the public service, which includes teachers and head teachers.
The 2019-21 Pre-Primary and Primary Teacher Deployment Strategy of the United Republic of Tanzania supports the capacity building of head teachers and other education managers and administrative personnel on effective teacher deployment and management practices, including performance appraisals and result-based practices. The 2023 Head Teacher's Guidebook aims to be used in the training of primary school leaders, including school heads.
In Mainland Tanzania, similar training objectives are highlighted in the 2020 Guidelines for Teachers Deployment in Pre-Primary and Primary Schools, which aims to build head teachers’ capacity to effectively support, manage and utilise teachers. Finally, the 2016/17 – 2020/21 Education Sector Development Plan supports strengthening the leadership and management capacity of school heads in various areas, including gender analysis, gender-responsive pedagogy, integration of gender issues in the school improvement plan, strategies and practices to prevent dropout, school improvement planning, management and budgeting, teacher supervision, classroom observation and school-based continuous assessment. The capacity building of school leaders has additionally been prioritised in the process of revising the 2014 Education and Training Policy.
The Ministry of Education and the Agency for the Development of Educational Management have organized various in-service training programs for school leaders across different regions in the country through the national launch of school leadership and management training for head teachers.
In 2023 and 2024, training has been provided to build school leader capacity in various areas, including strategic planning, management of teaching and learning, good governance, resource management, work ethics, protection, and children's safety. Over 6,700 head teachers were trained in the first phase, with over 4000 expected to be reached in the second phase.
Similar objectives are set in Zanzibar. The 2006 Zanzibar Education Policy and 2017/18–2021/22 Zanzibar Education Development Plan II support the ongoing training of school heads on leadership and management and issues such as HIV/AIDS.
A 2022 study on the influence of leadership induction training on the performance of newly appointed heads of public secondary schools in Arusha City Council reveals gaps in current training practices. Many new principals lack formal induction, affecting their preparation and performance in areas such as financial management, conflict resolution, and teacher supervision. The study emphasizes the importance of structured induction programs to equip principals with essential skills and knowledge for effective school management. Although previous induction programs had positive effects, the current absence of such training is noted in the study (Michael and Kitula, 2022).
3. Teachers, parents and students
3.1. School management committees and boards
The 1978 Education Act provides for the establishment of school boards in every national school (managed by the Ministry of Education) and school committees in every regional school (managed by the District Development Council).
The Government School Board (Establishment) Order governs the composition and functions of the school board. School boards must be composed of one member representing the voluntary organization that established the school; the Regional Education Officer or their representative; the head of the school; one member representing the academic staff; not more than five members appointed by the Regional Commissioner upon recommendation of the Regional Education Officer; two members appointed by the Regional Commissioner upon recommendation of the head of school; and two members co-opted by the board during its first sitting. The school board has various functions, including directing the head of school on the management development, planning, discipline and finance for the school; promoting better education and welfare of the school; soliciting contributions, donations, and income-generating activities for the development and welfare of the school; suspending any teacher on disciplinary grounds, misconduct or inefficiency; and prescribing student uniforms.
According to the Establishment of School Committees Notice, school committees are composed on five members elected by parents; two members of the academic staff of the school elected by members of staff; the Ward Councillor in which the school is situated; one member representing the voluntary organization if that school was originally established by that organization; and the patron of the school if any. The head teacher is the Secretary of the school committee. The functions of the school committee include ensuring that the school has adequate physical facilities; ensuring the safety of the school premises and properties; ensuring that parents and other community members participate fully in the development of the school; approving the annual school budget and uses of all school funds; and soliciting of funds and contributions for the welfare of the school.
The roles of school boards/committees are further outlined in the 2023 Head Teacher's Guidebook, 2020 Guidelines for Teachers Deployment in Pre-Primary and Primary Schools and 2009 Guidelines for School Supervision.
3.2. Middle leaders
According to the 2016/17 – 2020/21 Education Sector Development Plan, each school has a management team composed of the head of the school, deputy head and middle leaders such as the school accountant (usually a selected teacher in primary schools), academic master and discipline master, with general management responsibilities detailed.
3.3. Parents
One of the functions of the school board, as outlined in the Government School Board (Establishment) Order, is to formulate a Parent–Teachers Association (PTA) in the school, which is defined as ‘an association of teachers and parents of a government school’. PTAs meet at least 3 times a year, discussing issues such as the use of capitation grants, students’ attendance and performance, and corporal punishment.
3.4. Students
Barazas (student councils) are a statutory requirement in every school in Tanzania. According to the 2023 Head Teacher's Guidebook, each school should have a student council consisting of democratically elected students, with their detailed responsibilities outlined in the guidebook.
4. Governance
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
The 2009 Guidelines for School Supervision aim to empower schools to be more responsible for managing administrative and pedagogical issues that promote quality education. The head of the school is specifically responsible for conducting administrative and pedagogical supervision to ensure quality education at the school level and participating actively in introducing changes and innovations in the school. Head teachers are generally responsible for supervising the implementation of the set curriculum, which includes syllabus interpretation and selection of teaching techniques.
Head teachers, in collaboration with school committees/boards, are responsible for facilitating the planning, budgeting and implementation of the school fund. The main role in leading the planning and budgeting process, including organising the school budget, lies with the head teacher, as described in detail in the 2023 Head Teacher's Guidebook. According to the 1978 Education Act, the Minister of Education may give head teachers, headmasters, managers and other heads of schools directions on the use of public funds by their schools (Article 5).
Decisions on hiring teachers are not made by school leaders. The only role of head teachers in the teacher deployment process is regularly reporting the number of teachers on staff in each school and the number of teachers needed, based on the student population. Termination is generally managed at the district level. The head teacher reports the matter to the district council, who in turn reports to the Teachers Service Department, via the district education officer. The Teachers Service Department investigates and derives cases to regional and central authorities for corrective measures to be taken.
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
According to the 2018 Teachers Professional Board Act, the Minister of Education may appoint teachers as supervisors at the district and regional levels to supervise professional teachers with administrative roles (Article 14). Head Teachers are evaluated by ward education coordinators, and district education officers, with frequencies varying between quarterly to annually. Head teachers are further responsible for self-evaluation, while ward education coordinators are responsible for evaluating the performance of teachers, students, school management, and school committees.
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
Head teachers are responsible for appraising teachers, as described in the 2023 Head Teacher's Guidebook and 2009 Guidelines for School Supervision.
This profile has been reviewed by Dr. Icarbord Tshabangu, Associate Professor (Research) in Citizenship and Educational Leadership at Trinity University.
