School leadership
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
2.2. Selection and working conditions
2.3. Leadership preparation and training
3. Teachers, parents and students
3.1. School management committees and boards
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
1. Terminology
The 2011 Education Act includes a head teacher and a principal in its definition of ‘head of institution’. A head teacher is defined as ‘the person appointed as head of a basic school, high school or school for continuing education’, while a principal is defined as ‘the person appointed as a head of a college of education or any other college who, in the case of a college of education board is the college education board secretary’. Responsible authorities of schools include the head teacher, principal, manager, proprietor, board of management or the education board.
The 2013 Teaching Profession Act includes a head of a school and principal in its definition of a ‘teacher’.
In the 2019 Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession, educational leaders refer to school or teacher training jurisdiction leaders who ‘strive to create a conducive teaching and learning environment’. These leaders may comprise provincial education officers, district board secretaries, directors, college principals, vice principals, head teachers, deputy head teachers, heads of department (H.O.D) and senior teachers.
According to the 2007 School-Based Continuing Professional Development Program, the role of the School Head is that of creating a conducive teaching and learning environment, while the Deputy Head is responsible for the day-to-day teaching.
2. School principals
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
Competency standards and leadership frameworks and guidelines
The 2019 Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession, published by the Ministry of General Education, describe the knowledge, skills, values, competencies, conduct, and obligations that education professionals (including educational leaders) need to improve their professional practice which will ultimately lead to higher learner achievements. The Standards of Practice take into account all education professions in public, aided, private and community schools and are designed to be used by education professionals to prompt reflection on professional practice, formulate professional goals and assess progress in achieving professionally accepted benchmarks. They include Standards of Practice for Teachers, Standards of Practice for Teacher Educators, and Standards of Practice for Educational Leaders and form the basis for appraisal, licensing, promotions, inspections, and issuance of teaching certificates. The document is set out in six areas of practice: Culture; Teaching and Learning; Management (classroom for a teacher, learning environment for a teacher educator and institutional for an educational leader); Partnership and networking; Professional improvement; and Research.
The standards also explicitly apply to leaders in the education system such as Ministry of General Education directors, provincial education officers, district education board secretaries, college principals/vice principals, heads of departments, head teachers, deputy head teachers, and senior teachers and make explicit the elements of high quality effective professional practice that aim to improve educational outcomes for all learners.
The Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession were developed by the Ministry of General Education and its partners. These included, among others: United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) Regional Office for Southern Africa (ROSA), with support from UNESCO’s Capacity Development for Education program (CAPED); Teaching Council of Zambia (TCZ); Teaching Service Commission (TSC); Zambia Education Sector Support Technical Assistance (ZESSTA); Zambia National Education Coalition (ZANEC); Higher Education Authority (HEA); Zambia Qualification Authority (ZAQA); Technical Education, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training Authority (TEVATA), Ministry of Higher Education, Independent Schools Association of Zambia (ISAZ); VVOB Zambia and teacher unions.
The standards operationalise existing laws and regulations, such as the 2013 Teaching Profession Act and Commissions (Amendment) Acts, which are responsible for establishing frameworks for periodic review of professional practice and ethical standards. According to the 2013 Teaching Profession Act, the Teaching Council of Zambia is responsible for developing, promoting and enforcing internationally comparable teaching profession practice standards to improve the quality of education in Zambia (Article 6).
Additional roles for head teachers and principals are set out in the 2011 Education Act, 2013 Teaching Profession Act, 1996 National Education Policy: Educating Our Future, 2007 School-Based Continuing Professional Development Program, 2017 National Learning Assessment Framework.
Roles
Setting expectations/objectives: The 2019 Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession (Standards of Practice for Educational leaders) include the development and implementation of a strategic plan, in collaboration with key stakeholders, which effectively communicates the shared mission statement, vision, goals, values and practices of the institution. This standard includes publishing a mission statement, vision, values and goals for the school/college; developing a strategic plan and disseminating it to all stakeholders; engaging stakeholders in the implementation of the vision, values and goals on an ongoing basis; and implementing, monitoring and evaluating annual goals and activities in line with strategic intent.
Developing teaching and learning: Several standards relate to the development of teaching and learning in the Standards of Practice for Educational leaders described in the 2019 Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession. Educational leaders are generally expected to create an enabling environment for teaching and learning towards the holistic development of learners and provide instructional leadership through engagement with staff members to share knowledge about effective teaching and learning in the context of the existing Zambian curriculum and education policy documents. They must also ensure that effective teaching and learning takes place throughout the institution leading to positive learner outcomes and that the design, delivery, and review of the institution’s programmes are informed by institution-based and external evaluation. This includes ensuring teachers are applying current education policies and frameworks, using institutional data (e.g. surveys, examination results, monitoring and evaluation reports, attendance registers) to achieve and sustain continuous improvement in institutions, and promoting the use of innovative teaching practices and learning resources, including ICT.
They are also responsible for undertaking research, supporting others to undertake research and utilising research findings to improve teaching and learning and institution performance and using empirical data for planning, policy formulation and decision-making at all levels.
The 2011 Education Act additionally states that the head of an institution is responsible for determining the timetable for the teaching of the national and the localised curriculum at the educational institution.
Promoting collaboration: According to the standard on ‘partnership and network’, educational leaders must ensure that the voices of the learners/teachers are heard and addressed through formal and informal structures and mechanisms (such as Parents Teachers Committees and student councils), that staff collaborate to improve teaching and learning by sharing teaching experiences and materials, and that teamwork is supported to establish and sustain effective teacher/learner relationships and improve learners’ progress. Educational leaders must additionally maintain regular interactions with key stakeholders (such as parents) on teaching and learning, which includes informing parents on learners’ progress, involving parents in the implementation of homework policy, and including parents on teaching, learning and other matters that can enhance learner performance. Leaders are generally responsible for strengthening communication and relationships with stakeholders in the community, with other institutions, and with other educational leaders to support and enhance institutional performance.
Supporting staff development: According to the 2007 School-Based Continuing Professional Development Program, head teachers oversee all school-based continuous professional development activities by way of management, coordination and monitoring (demanded as part of their job description). The Management Skills book for the School-Based Continuing Professional Development through Lesson Study similarly highlights that the head teacher is in charge of activities that aim at enhancing the professional growth of teachers, assisted by the deputy head who directly supervises the continuous professional development activities in the school and sees to it that there is proper organization, support and management.
The 2019 Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession further state that educational leaders must effectively manage and utilise existing human resources to improve institutional performance, which includes ensuring that effective observation and mentoring arrangements are in place for staff and teachers in training; effectively using performance management and development process and other tools to improve the performance of staff members; and ensuring there are psycho-social support services available for staff.
The 2017 National Learning Assessment Framework similarly states that school leaders are responsible for the performance of teachers within their schools and ensuring that they have a plan for professional development on assessment practices to help all teachers use assessment effectively to continually improve learning.
Acting in accordance with the ethical principles of the profession: According to the 2013 Teaching Profession Act, the Teaching Council of Zambia is responsible for promoting an understanding of professional ethics among teachers (including head teachers), ensuring the guidelines for professional ethics are responsive to the expectations of the public and those who rely on the teaching profession, and raising the character of the teaching profession to promote honorable and good practice (Article 6). Head teachers are included as part of the definition of ‘teachers’ in the Act.
The 2018 Teaching Profession (Code of Ethics) Regulations state that the following values and principles apply to all teachers: integrity and honesty; impartiality and objectivity; excellence and professionalism; loyalty and respect; accountability; confidentiality; selflessness; dedication; and commitment (Article 3).
Others: Other standards for educational leaders described in the 2019 Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession include providing leadership that operates within government and institutional policies and existing laws and in a way that enhances the effective day-to-day operation of the institution; effectively managing and utilising human, financial, and physical resources (e.g. time, finances, property and facilities); demonstrating effective communication skills (verbal and non-verbal); and developing their own professional best practice, knowledge and competences through engaging in systematic and managed professional learning.
Educational leaders are additionally expected to ensure an inclusive environment in which the diversity (including gender equality), needs and prior experiences of learners are acknowledged, respected, and taken into account. This includes ensuring that educational programmes meet the diverse learning needs of different groups including learners with Special Educational Needs; ensuring a pedagogy is applied that recognises and respects the diversity, needs and prior experience of all learners; taking actions to address gaps in learning outcomes across different groups; and developing action plans and strategies based on a human rights approach to ensure that learners’ rights to education are respected and guaranteed.
Leaders must finally promote and guarantee the multi-cultural heritage of Zambia and ensure that it is evident in professional relations. This includes modelling respect for other people’s cultures in day-to-day interactions by doing away with own cultural biases; planning institutional activities that respect and value diverse cultures; and taking a leading role in actively participating in activities aimed at promoting cultural differences.
The 2011 Education Act includes further roles for heads of institutions related to admissions and the adoption of a code of conduct.
2.2. Selection and working conditions
Degree requirements and prior teaching experience
Head teachers are included in the definition of teachers in the 2013 Teaching Profession Act. According to the Act, the Teaching Council of Zambia is responsible for registering all teachers, including head teachers, and developing, maintaining, and improving appropriate standards of qualification in the teaching profession. To be registered as teachers, applicants must possess such knowledge, training and experience as may be prescribed; qualify as a training institution recognized by the Council; be residents in Zambia or have an established office or appointment in Zambia in the teaching profession; be of good character and good professional standing; and meet the Council’s requirements (Article 11).
Heads must have the required qualifications, ability, and experience to be selected, with the usual route for promotion being via the positions of senior teacher and deputy head. A minimum of a bachelor’s degree in education or another relevant social science discipline and prior teaching and administrative experience is usually required.
Appointment decision
According to the 1996 National Education Policy: Educating Our Future, school heads are appointed by the relevant District Education Board (usually from within the school) which is close to the scene of operations and includes parents with a vital interest in the effectiveness of the school. Heads are primarily selected based on qualifications, ability, and experience. The Education (Aided Educational Institutions) Regulations specify that for aided schools, the principal and deputy are appointed on the recommendation of the proprietor made through the Education Secretary to the Minister (Article 12).
Employment equity measures
The government has recognized the need to promote equitable gender representation at all levels of decision-making (including in education) through affirmative action such as developing criteria for recruitment, appointment and promotion of more women to advisory and decision-making positions. The 2023 National Gender Policy aims to ensure an enabling environment with special measures of affirmative action provided for the advancement of gender equity and equality. One of its objectives is to increase the participation of women in governance and decision-making, with measures including promoting the participation of women in decision-making in the public and private sectors; promoting equal participation of women and men in governance; and strengthening the capacities of women to take up leadership roles.
The 2015 Gender Equity and Equality Act similarly regulates the equal representation and participation of women in management positions. According to the Act, the equal participation of both genders in decision-making should be ensured through the formulation and implementation of policies, strategies and programs on building the capacity of women to participate effectively in decision-making through leadership and gender-sensitive training and mentoring; providing support structures for women in decision making positions, and changing discriminatory attitudes and norms of decision making structures and procedures. All public bodies and private bodies are required to develop special measures to achieve at least 50% of representation and attain meaningful participation of women in decision-making structures, which includes setting targets for such representation and participation; building women’s capacity to participate; enhancing the understanding and attitudes of men in accepting the capabilities and participation of women as their equals; and developing support mechanisms for women for the progressive realisation towards 50% representation and meaningful participation of women. The Minister responsible for education is also specifically responsible for adopting and implementing gender-sensitive educational policies and programmes.
The Minister of Education is specifically responsible for ensuring improved gender balance in supervisory, managerial and responsibility posts in the education sector and for monitoring progress in achieving appropriate gender balances, in accordance with the 1996 National Education Policy: Educating Our Future.
Working conditions
According to the 1996 National Education Policy: Educating Our Future, school heads are appointed on secondment or contract for a specified period (an arrangement that also applies to other education managers). Those who prove their worth during such a period may have their contracts renewed. The criterion that will be used to decide on this will be actual performance and success in leading the school forward on the road to excellence.
The Teaching Council of Zambia is responsible for collaborating with relevant unions on conditions of service and remuneration of teachers, including head teachers, as stipulated in the 2013 Teaching Profession Act (Article 6). All workers (including teachers) rights to bargain collectively are guaranteed by the Constitution and national legislation. The Industrial and Labor Relations Act provides the legislative framework for the establishment, organization and management of trade unions, employer’s organizations and their federations. The Act provides detailed provisions on the rights of employees in respect of trade union membership and its activities, including the right to form trade unions and collective bargaining. The Ministry of General Education provides specific salary scales for head teachers / principals. In 2020, head teachers at the primary level received salaries at scale J, while head teachers and deputies at the secondary level received salaries at scale K. A head of school typically earns around 96,500 ZMW (3899 USD) per year, which can range from the lowest average salary of about 44,780 ZMW to the highest average salary of 152,000 ZMW.
The Headteachers Association of Zambia is the professional body that represents the interest of all subscribed headteachers in local and international continuous professional development.
2.3. Leadership preparation and training
Pre-service training
The 1996 National Education Policy: Educating Our Future includes a dedicated section on training in educational management, with an overall objective for the Ministry of Education to develop a strategic framework for management training in the education sector. The Ministry aimed to ensure appropriate training as a pre-condition for appointment or promotion to a professional post as an educational manager, including school heads, education officers, and inspectors, recognising that the majority of those occupying supervisory and management positions in the sector had not received relevant training for their posts. In addition, the Ministry established the National Institute of Education to provide pre-service and in-service training in educational management, establishing a mechanism for coordinating educational management training throughout the entire sector. This includes training for newly appointed personnel (as a form of induction).
The required skills (both technical and social) for educational managers outlined in the national policy include management functions of organizing, staffing and leading; human resource development or staff training; completion of confidential and statistical reports; computer skills; managing change; research skills and writing up project proposals; control of physical resources and assets; industrial law; visionary leadership and the ability to communicate the vision to staff; decision making; organizing and chairing meetings; and personnel management skills, including record keeping and staff appraisal.
The 2013 Teaching Profession Act additionally provides for the Minister to make regulations prescribing the system of teacher preparation and duration of training (Article 37).
Induction and in-service training
The Teaching Council of Zambia is responsible for promoting continuous professional development among teachers and introducing in-service education and training programs for teachers in consultation with the Minister, as stipulated in the 2013 Teaching Profession Act. The Council determines the nature and duration of in-service training that shall be mandatory for all registered teachers, including head teachers (Article 35).
School heads are responsible for developing their professional practice, knowledge, and competencies through engaging in systematic and managed professional learning, as stated in the 2019 Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession. They are additionally expected to participate in seminars, conferences and workshops which enhance professional growth and career development.
The Education Leadership and Management training programme to strengthen effective school management is provided by the Ministry of Education in the national budget. At the school level, there is allocation for school leadership professional development in the school budget and plans.
Several government agencies support school leadership professional development in Zambia. These include Chalimbana University, the collaboration University of Zambia and Zimbabwe Open University, University of Zambia, and the Teaching Council of Zambia. These agencies support building the capacity of school leaders in administrative and management skills. Their roles encompass designing and delivering professional development programmes to enhance leadership effectiveness at various levels including schools.
One of the priorities of the 2017-21 Education and Skills Sector Plan is to strengthen the capacity of head teachers to provide effective oversight of teaching and learning, by enhancing head teacher supervision and leadership skills with a focus on pedagogical leadership competencies. The 2007 School-Based Continuing Professional Development Program similarly aims to strengthen head teachers’ knowledge and skills on the management of schools including teacher professional development through school-based continuous professional development activities. The 1996 National Education Policy: Educating Our Future further supported the provision of special in-service programs for school heads to improve their skills as school managers and educational leaders. The policy emphasised that these in-service training programs need to become a permanent feature of the education system, to keep school heads abreast of changes and innovations, to extend their capacities for educational management and supervision, and to sharpen their organizational and leadership skills. The policy stated that the Ministry would take ‘whatever steps’ are needed to provide regular in-service training to educational managers.
3. Teachers, parents and students
3.1. School management committees and boards
The 2011 Education Act provides for the establishment of education boards as governance bodies in public schools and boards of management for aided, private or community schools, while the Education Board Guidelines and Governance in Education Boards: A Handbook for Planning and Decision Making provides more detailed guidelines.
The functions of an education board include interpreting and implementing national policies on education; preparing, reviewing, and adopting annual budgets; monitoring management performance; submitting annual and bi-annual reports to the district director of education; ensuring that the premises of the educational institution are safe and clean; and providing guidelines on the instruction and discipline of learners (Article 45). These boards are further responsible for the recruitment and discipline of teachers and other staff, administration of funds, and imposing of fees, in addition to administering, controlling and maintaining their institutions. Each board includes up to fifteen members, one of whom is an education official, while the rest are teachers, parents, students, school heads, and the district council nominees.
The functions of a board of management include administering, maintaining, and controlling the aided institution; employing staff; regulating enrolment conditions, including fees and charges; and determining conditions of suspension, or exclusion of learners (Article 84). The constitution of an aided institution provides for the membership of its board of management.
Schools are additionally expected to establish a School/College Security Committee to oversee the proper conduct and security of examinations at the school. The composition of the School Security Committee includes the headteacher, deputy headteacher, guidance teacher, head of department /senior teacher, representatives from teacher unions, parents–teachers’ committee members, and representative from Zambia police service/community crime prevention unit.
3.2. Middle leaders
The 2007 School-Based Continuing Professional Development Program describes the roles of Deputy Heads, Heads of Department / Heads of Section, and Senior Teachers. The Heads of Departments or Sections are responsible for planning and scheduling continuous professional development activities, preparing logistics, checking lesson plans for teachers, assisting teachers in preparing teaching materials, and record keeping. Deputy Heads observe lesson demonstrations, manage continuous professional development files in schools, and submit reports to higher authorities.
In high schools there is a head teacher, deputy head teacher, and heads of department; while in basic schools there is a head teacher, deputy head teacher, senior teacher and school coordinator.
3.3. Parents
The 2011 Education Act and 2019 Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession provide for the establishment of a parent-teachers committee as a governance structure in public schools (Article 46). Parent-school committees are also required to be established in community schools. These committees must be comprised of 6-13 members, with detailed functions outlined in the 2011 Education Act. These include regulating the enrolment of learners, determining the conditions for suspension or exclusion of learners, and keeping proper accounts of income and expenditure.
3.4. Students
The 2019 Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession aim to ensure the voices of the learners are heard and addressed through formal and informal structures and mechanisms, such as the establishment of student councils and the involvement of learners in school activities. Education leaders are explicitly responsible for the establishment of student councils.
4. Governance
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
The school head is responsible for ensuring that the design, delivery and review of the school’s programmes is informed by institution-based and external evaluation; promoting the use of innovative teaching practices and learning resources (including ICT); and ensuring that programmes are updated in the light of evaluation. Teaching and learning courses must be in the context of the existing Zambian curriculum and education policy documents.
School leaders are further responsible for the effective management and utilisation the school’s financial resources, as described in the 2019 Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession, which includes overseeing the disbursement of budgeted funds for timely use in the learning institution.
Finally, school heads participate in the recruitment process of qualified personnel in line with the existing recruitment policy and guidelines. School boards are primarily responsible for the recruitment and discipline of teachers and other staff. In grant-aided schools, the board of management appoints the school’s teachers, determines teacher salaries, and dismisses teachers, with review by central authorities. In community schools, the Ministry of General Education may appoint and deploy some teachers where qualified teachers are lacking.
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
The 2019 Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession form the basis for the appraisal of education leaders. Educational leaders must actively participate in performance management and development processes by reviewing their performance, giving and receiving feedback, and agreeing on personal targets in line with institutional strategies and improvement plans. Leaders must specifically initiate and participate in performance management processes (e.g. Individual Annual Workplans, Annual Performance Appraisal Scheme); undertake performance reviews, providing and receiving feedback from staff, line managers, inspectors, peers and other colleagues to improve learner performance; and act on feedback from line managers, inspectors, peers and other colleagues to improve learner performance.
According to the 1996 National Education Policy: Educating Our Future, school heads are accountable to the relevant District Education Board, which assesses their performance.
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
Head teachers are responsible for undertaking regular staff performance reviews, as described in the 2019 Standards of Practice for the Teaching Profession.
