NON-STATE ACTORS IN EDUCATION
2.2 Non-state education provision
3.1 Regulations by distinct levels of education
- Early childhood care and education (Entry/Establishment ○ Financial operation ○ Quality of teaching and learning ○ Equitable access ○ Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability)
- Primary and secondary education (Entry/Establishment ○ Financial operation ○ Quality of teaching and learning ○ Equitable access ○ Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability)
- Tertiary education (Entry/Establishment ○ Financial operation ○ Quality of teaching and learning ○ Equitable access ○ Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability)
3.3 Supplementary private tutoring
The Education Reform Act of 2011 which governs early childhood to secondary education in Liberia distinguishes between “private schools” which are operated by “private individuals or organizations” and “faith-based schools” which are “administered by religious institutions”. The National Policy on Higher Education 2015 distinguishes between “public” and “non-public higher education institutions”, the latter of which include “private and faith-based" institutions.
The Education Sector Analysis 2016 and Getting to Best: Education Sector Plan (G2B-ESP) 2017-21 distinguish between “private schools”, “faith-based schools” and “community schools” as “non-government” schools established and run by “non-government school providers”. Community schools are established and run by communities.
2.1 State education provision
State schools
According to the Education Reform Act 2011 and the Children’s Law 2011, the state is obliged to provide free and compulsory education at primary (6 years, ages 6 – 12) and lower secondary (3 years, ages 12-14) education levels (Article 4) in Liberia. Upper secondary level (3 years, ages 15 – 17), which is categorized into general or specialized schools (offering specialized subjects), should, in accordance with the Children’s Law 2011, be progressively made “free and accessible to all children in Liberia”. During these 12 years of formal education, state education provision is only (marginally) higher at primary level (with 51% of total enrolments), as lower secondary and upper secondary levels have significantly higher share in non-state provision (both in terms of enrolment and school numbers).
All state schools in Liberia are established and operated by the Ministry of Education (MoE), with the exception of the Monrovia Consolidated School System, which oversees the management and operation of state schools in the greater Monrovia area. The official language of instruction in all schools is English, along with one local language determined by each county.
Non-state managed, state schools
Partnership Schools for Liberia (PSL) are 93 early childhood and primary state schools that were contracted in management and operation to eight non-state operators (ranging from local non-profit organizations to for-profit multinational low-fee private school chains) based on a competitive bidding process with the aim to improve student learning outcomes in Liberia. PSL schools (catering to approximately 25,000 students) remain owned by the state, follow the national curriculum, and are prohibited from charging any tuition fees. Non-state operators receive annual subsidies of 100 USD (including per-student subsidies by third-party donors and state subsidies covering staff and maintenance costs) and are encouraged to explore innovative and low-cost learning approaches. This large-scale intervention, which the MoE refers to as the “largest public-private partnership education program in Africa” was piloted in 2016, subject to external evaluation.
Non-state funded, state schools
No information was found.
2.2 Non-state education provision
There is significant non-state education provision in Liberia, accounting for over 40% of total enrolments in the education sector, with the highest share (70%) of enrolments at the upper secondary level. The majority of non-state schools, which tend to be notably heterogeneous in terms of ownership, value orientation, location, and population served, operate in urban areas, particularly in Montserrado County, where 87% of all primary schools are non-state.
Independent, non-state schools
The most common form of non-state schools in Liberia are private schools, which are independent schools funded, established, and operated by secular individuals or groups, including large corporations and private sector organizations. Most private schools in Liberia operate as for-profit business enterprises, primarily financed through various student fees (ranging from low-fee to high-fee institutions) and donations. Some private schools may operate only in particular locations or cater to specific groups, such as children of workers from a particular mining company. While the national curriculum is not compulsory in private schools, the majority of schools follow the syllabus and curriculum prescribed by the MoE (reformed in 2019).
Faith-based schools (also known as mission or religious schools) are independent schools established and operated by religious institutions that have been part of the education system in Liberia since the mid-1800s. Faith-based schools are primarily funded through various school fees (similar to private schools), in addition to donations from church organizations or other religious organizations. These schools are commonly organized as mini-school systems around specific religious affiliations, such as Catholic, Methodist, Baptist, Islam, Lutheran, Seventh Day Adventist, Assembly of God, and Inland Mission. Similar to private schools, the national curriculum is not compulsory for faith-based schools but tends to be widely used. According to the Getting to Best Education Sector Plan 2017-21, approximately half the education system is delivered by faith-based education institutions (including individual faith-based schools and private schools).
State-funded (government-aided), non-state schools
The most common form of non-state schools in Liberia are private schools, which are independent schools funded, established, and operated by secular individuals or groups, including large corporations and private sector organizations. Most private schools in Liberia operate as for-profit business enterprises, primarily financed through various student fees (ranging from low-fee to high-fee institutions) and donations. Some private schools may operate only in particular locations or cater to specific groups, such as children of workers from a particular mining company. While the national curriculum is not compulsory in private schools, the majority of schools follow the syllabus and curriculum prescribed by the MoE (reformed in 2019).
Faith-based schools (also known as mission or religious schools) are independent schools established and operated by religious institutions that have been part of the education system in Liberia since the mid-1800s. Faith-based schools are primarily funded through various school fees (similar to private schools), in addition to donations from church organizations or other religious organizations. These schools are commonly organized as mini-school systems around specific religious affiliations, such as Catholic, Methodist, Baptist, Islam, Lutheran, Seventh Day Adventist, Assembly of God, and Inland Mission. Similar to private schools, the national curriculum is not compulsory for faith-based schools but tends to be widely used. According to the Getting to Best Education Sector Plan 2017-21, approximately half the education system is delivered by faith-based education institutions (including individual faith-based schools and private schools).
Contracted, non-state schools
Liberia has a concession school system, in which large agricultural and mining corporations are contracted by the state through concession agreements to manage, operate and fund schools which according the Education Sector Analysis 2016, reach over 20,000 students in Liberia. The Education Reform Act 2011 states that operators are contracted based on specific terms and conditions, such as 60% of any signature fees realized to be allocated to the national education budget.
2.3 Other types of schools
Community schools are schools which are established and run by communities in Liberia, many of which were established during the civil wars and reconstruction periods. These schools are mostly prevalent in remote and rural areas and expected to be eventually taken over by the state in management and funding. Community schools are considered part of the state school system in the G2B-ESP 2017-21, but clearly distinguished as “non-state” in the Education Sector Analysis 2016. All community schools in Liberia are required to follow the national curriculum.
Homeschooling
While there is no provision on the legality of homeschooling in Liberia, the MoE provided various distance learning platforms during the COVID-19 school closures in March 2020 in close collaboration with civil society, INGOs, NGOs, and private foundations operating in the education sector. Drawing from the distance learning experiences of the Ebola epidemic in 2014, the MoE committed over 8 million USD in learning continuity support (including accelerated learning packages) through online platforms, radio, SMS, and printed material. According to the COVID-19 Education Emergency Response Plan equity issues were taken into consideration, with targeted support for children in remote areas, children with special needs, and children of lower socioeconomic status who were disproportionately affetcted by the learning disruptions.
Market contracted (Voucher schools)
No information was found.
Unregistered/Unrecognized schools
No information was found.
The Ministry of Education (MoE) is responsible for coordinating and supervising the education system in Liberia for all state, community, private, and faith-based schools from pre-primary (Bureau of Early Childhood) to upper secondary level (Bureau of Basic and Secondary Education), while the National Commission of Higher Education (NCHE) supervises the tertiary education sector.
The Education Reform Act 2011 began decentralizing the education system in the country, by devolving operation and school monitoring to County School Boards and County Education Offices at the county level, and District School Boards and District Education Offices at the district level. The County and District Offices were specifically given the authority to oversee the registration and operation of non-state schools within their relevant counties or districts, which, in the tertiary education sector, is overseen by the NCHE.
Vision: The government of Liberia strongly encourages non-state participation in education, with the aim to “mobilize, unite and coordinate education sector stakeholders” which include “non-government school providers, development partners and bilateral and multilateral donors, local and international non-government organizations, civil society organizations, and private sector businesses including large agricultural and mining concessions”. According to the Getting to Best Education Sector Plan 2017-21, one of the goals of the MoE is to “harness the external capacity” of these different stakeholders, listing the PSL PPP program, the so-called “largest public-private partnership education program in Africa”, as an “achievement” in “improving student learning outcomes”.
3.1 Regulations by distinct levels of education
Early childhood care and education (ECCE), which covers ages 3 – 5 (Kindergarten I – III), was formally recognized as part of the education system in Liberia in the Education Reform Act 2011, leading to the establishment of the Bureau of Early Childhood. ECCE programs (which in some centers include nursery classes at age 2) are categorized into state institutions (covering approximately 50% of provision), private institutions, faith-based institutions, and community-based institutions. Non-state actors (which include local and international agencies, NGOs, civil society, religious organizations, communities, families, and private individuals or organizations) are encouraged in the National Inter-Sectoral Policy on Early Childhood Development (NIPECD) 2011 to not only establish and manage ECCE centers, but provide the state with technical assistance and resources. Due to late enrolment in ECCE programs, nearly half the pupils enrolled (over 250,000 pupils) are aged 6 and above.
Registration and approval: For an individual or organization to establish an ECCE centre in Liberia, an application must be made to the relevant District Education Office (DEO) according to MoE guidelines (including infrastructure standards) set out in the NIPECD 2011. Once evaluated and criteria are inspected, the application is forwarded to the Bureau of Early Childhood which is responsible for issuing permits.
License: If approved, the Bureau of Early Childhood may issue the applicant a permit to operate (which is subject to approval from the Deputy Minister for Instruction and endorsement by the Minister of Education). According to the Education Reform Act 2011, ECCE institutions are strictly prohibited from operating without a license from the MoE, while any license may be suspended or revoked if the institution is found to not be conforming to the minimum requirements and guidelines.
Profit-making: No information was found.
Taxes and subsidies: PSL ECCE schools receive annual per-student subsidies of 50 USD from third party donors, in addition to a 50 USD annual state subsidy which covers staff and maintenance costs. Moreover, teacher salaries in PSL ECCE centres are paid by the state.
Quality of teaching and learning
Curriculum and education standards: According to the Education Reform Act 2011, the Bureau of Early Childhood Education is responsible for overseeing that all ECCE programs in Liberia are in line with national policy objectives, while all centers are required to follow the national curriculum developed by the Center for Curriculum Development and Research.
Teaching profession: The MoE has established a formal pre-service ECCE teaching program, which according to the objectives set out in the NIPECD 2011, plans to train at least 50 percent of all ECCE teachers and caregivers. All teachers must be licensed to teach.
Fee-setting: While ECCE programs (including state-owned institutions) traditionally charge fees in Liberia, PSL ECCE schools are prohibited from charging students any fees.
Admission selection and processes: The only reference to admission selection procedures found was that non-state operators of PSL schools are prohibited from screening students during admission based on ability or other characteristics.
Policies for vulnerable groups: The NIPECD 2011 established a National Inter-sectoral Committee on ECCE which is responsible for developing targeted programs that ensure ECCE services are reaching disadvantaged groups in Liberia. Moreover, school operators in PSL ECCE centres are required to offer students textbooks and uniforms free of charge.
Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability
Reporting requirements: No information was found.
Inspection: The Bureau of Early Childhood is responsible for monitoring all registered ECCE centres and holding formal inspections on an annual basis to ensure that minimum standards are maintained. As for the PSL intervention, the MoE agreed to a 3-year external evaluation of the program primarily in regard to learning outcomes achieved (completed in 2019).
Child assessment: No information was found.
Sanctions: If any institution is found to not be adhering to curriculum requirements or general guidelines set out by the MoE, they will be subject to suspension or revocation of their registration license.
Registration and approval: According to the Education Reform Act 2011, all non-state schools operating in Liberia are required to be registered and licensed with the MoE. To establish a non-state school in Liberia, an application must be made to the relevant County and DEO, along with the registration fee paid at the closest Liberia Revenue Authority (operating under the Ministry of Finance). Applicants can be private individuals or organizations. Once the application has been evaluated and criteria have been inspected by the authorized DEO staff (including school infrastructure, classroom size, student-teacher ratio, financial stability of applicant, and staff qualifications), an appraisal report is submitted along with the application to the Centre of Excellence for Educational Accreditation, Certification and Licensing (CEACL) (under the MoE). Teacher-student ratio is regulated for all schools in Liberia (state and non-state).
License: If the application is approved, an annual permit to operate is issued by the CEACL (submitted to the DEO).
Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH): According to the G2B-ESP 2017-21, no minimum WASH standards are in place for schools in Liberia, but the MoE plans to develop school quality standards which will include specific water, health, and sanitation standards to be adhered to by all schools, while also increasing the number of schools with safe toilets and drinkable water.
Profit-making: While private schools may be established for-profit, there are restrictions.
Taxes and subsidies: According to the Education Sector Analysis 2016, many private and faith-based schools in Liberia receive subsidies from the state (almost 90% of overall state subsidies to educational institutions) on an ad-hoc basis to support their operation and management. The MoE additionally provides grants to non-state schools in remote locations to support school-based management and progress towards national education objectives. However, as there are no clear allocation criteria for state subsidies, the MoE plans to develop a subsidy policy to provide official guidelines and criteria for eligible institutions. Non-state operators of PSL schools receive an annual per-student subsidy of 50 USD by third party donors, and an additional 50 USD annual subsidy from the state which covers staff and maintenance costs. Finally, many non-state schools in Liberia are financially supported through concession agreements between the state and non-state actors (such as mining and agricultural corporations) which are administered through County Education Boards and subject to certain conditions, including at least 60% of signature fees realized to be allocated to the education budget.
Quality of teaching and learning
Curriculum and education standards: Private and faith-based schools in Liberia are free to develop their own curriculum, which is subject to approval from the MoE upon registration to ensure it adheres to national education objectives. However, the majority of non-state schools choose to follow the national curriculum developed by the Centre for Curriculum Development and Research. PSL schools on the other hand are required by contract to follow the national curriculum, while given the freedom to explore more effective learning and teaching approaches (including tablet-based assessment and curriculum delivery). The national curriculum in Liberia was reformed in 2019 to include comprehensive sexuality education, peace building, human rights, and African history.
Textbooks and learning materials: While all schools are required to use specific textbooks and courses prescribed by the MoE, if any non-state school chooses to include any additional textbook or course, the Education Reform Act 2011 states it “must not burden the normal advancement of the student”. PSL schools are all required to offer their students textbooks and uniforms free of charge.
Teaching profession: All teaching staff employed at non-state schools are required to be registered with the MoE and licensed to teach (having obtained a teaching degree or certificate). The MoE sets out specific qualifications for teachers in primary, lower secondary, and upper secondary levels in the Education Reform Act 2011 (Art. 6) in the Code of Conduct for Teachers and School Administrators 2014 (Art. 2.1). Teacher licenses can be cancelled or revoked at any time by the MoE if any teacher is found to be in violation of the code of conduct. While the recruitment, working hours, sick leave, and maternity leave are regulated for all teachers (state and non-state) by the MoE and in accordance with the Civil Service Act and Regulations, state school teachers and other “employees of the Ministry” are entitled to retirement and benefits in accordance with the Pension and Social Security laws, as well as health insurance jointly decided by the Ministry and the National Teacher Association of Liberia. Salaries are also only regulated for state school teachers, which must be “commensurate with their qualifications and experiences”. Teacher salaries in PSL schools are paid by the state through annual grants.
Corporal punishment: According to the provisions for the use of force in the Penal Code 1976 and the Children’s Law 2011, corporal punishment is lawful in all schools in Liberia for “justifiable correction”. The Education Reform Act 2011 states that “pupils conduct shall be regulated by the policy guidelines prescribed by the Ministry”, while corporal punishment is not included in the offenses listed in Chapter 7. In 2019, the MoE “frowned” on the use of corporal punishment in one of the Christian schools in the country, stating that the practice had been banned in the Ministry’s 2018/19 academic calendar.
Other safety measures and Covid-19: Due to income loss that resulted from the COVID-19 school closures in March 2020, private and faith-based schools were provided with additional subsidies from the MoE, as well as school health kits that would ensure that all health and safety protocols were in place during school re-openings. Moreover, the MoE, in collaboration with the Ministry of Finance, disbursed a 1 million USD stimulus package to private school teachers who had lost significant financial income in the wake of school closures.
Fee-setting: Any tuition fees charged by private and faith-based schools in Liberia are required to be set in accordance with MoE guidelines and approved by the MoE upon application. PSL schools are prohibited from charging any tuition fees.
Admission selection and processes: Similar to ECCE, the only regulations found regarding admission selection procedures in non-state schools were that operators of PSL schools are prohibited from discriminating on students during the admission process based on ability or any other characteristics.
Policies for vulnerable groups: While no specific policy was found regarding children from disadvantaged backgrounds, the Children’s Law 2011 requires the MoE to progressively work with the Ministry of Internal Affairs to ensure equal and equitable access to education for disadvantaged children.
Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability
School board: The Education Reform Act of 2011 states that every private and faith-based school is required to have a School Board and a Principal to head the school, both of which are subject to regulations set by the MoE. Non-state operators at PSL schools were contracted to take over the general school management of each PSL school, with considerable scope for innovation.
Reporting requirements: All state, private, and faith-based schools in Liberia are required to keep up-to-date records of their students, graduation rates, attendance, and tuition fees, which must be made available for inspection by the MoE upon request.
School inspection: According to the G2B-ESP 2017-21, the DEO and Instructional Supervisors are responsible for supervising and monitoring non-state schools and their compliance to MoE guidelines. However, there is no regular school inspection schedule in place, or a school-based quality assurance system developed. In March 2020, the MoE issued a statement that a National School Inspection Taskforce had been established which is authorized to inspect all school permits in private and faith-based schools to ensure compliance with MoE guidelines. The Bureau of Basic and Secondary Education oversees any inspections made. PSL schools have been evaluated based on a three-year externally conducted randomized controlled trial.
Student assessment: While private and faith-based schools are not required to sit for large-scale national examinations, approximately 80% of both private and faith-based schools use the West African Examination Council syllabus, in preparation for the WAEC examinations.
Diplomas and degrees: The West African Examination Council is responsible for all examinations for student transitions to lower secondary and upper secondary education levels in Liberia.
Sanctions: If any school is found to be non-compliant to institutional and academic standards, the MoE has the authority to suspend the authority of the District School Board, revoke the school’s license, or close down the institution.
Tertiary education institutions (TEIs) (colleges and universities) are categorized into state, private, and faith-based institutions, with over half of total enrolments in the state-owned University of Liberia and most institutions located in Montserrado County. According to the Diagnostic Paper for Higher Education 2012, private TEIs are mostly funded by donations (65%), while faith-based institutitons depend almost exclusively on student fees and real estate income (81%). The National Commission on Higher Education (NCHE), which was established as an autonomous agency in 1989, is the main regulatory agency for private and faith-based institutions, while the National Policy on Higher Education 2015 sets out the regulatory framework for all institutions.
Registration and approval: According to the National Policy on Higher Education 2015, any individual or organization seeking to be established and chartered as a non-state TEI in Liberia may send an application based on the prescribed format to the NCHE which contains detailed information on ownership, governance, academics, student services, and facilities. The NCHE is then responsible for verifying any information submitted.
License: If the required standards set out in the 2015 policy have been fulfilled, and the applicant has paid the non-refundable registration fee of 500 USD to the Ministry of Finance, the NCHE grants the institution a two-year Temporary Permit to Operate, during which the NCHE conducts site visits to assess progress. After two years, and following a thorough evaluation by the NCHE, the institution is issued an official Permit to Operate, which is valid for three years with an annual operation fee of 500 USD. Licensing is voluntary for private TEIs, whose degree programs will not be recognized or accepted as valid if not licensed with the NCHE.
Profit-making: There was no regulation found prohibiting the profit-making of non-state TEIs.
Taxes and subsidies: According to the Status of Higher Education 2012, the state provides eligible non-state TEIs subsidies or grants based on national critical needs (over 1.7 million USD in 2015/2016) which constitutes 7% of the total income for private institutions, and 13% for faith-based institutions. As stated in the National Policy on Higher Education 2015, only licensed institutions that are operating for at least 3 years are eligible to receive funding, while additional criteria include being able to cover 75% of total costs and having enrolled at least 500 students. All subsidized institutions are required to submit a formal annual report to the NCHE detailing how exactly the funds were used. Finally, non-state TEIs receive additional financial support through concessional oil and mining contracts. During the nation-wide institution closures in March 2020 due to COVID-19, private TEIs that were licensed and in compliance with existing subsidy guidelines were provided with additional subsidies from the MoE.
Quality of teaching and learning
Curriculum and education standards: Any curriculum or academic program followed by a non-state institution in approved in the registration and accreditation process by the NCHE, which evaluates programs based on the extent in which they align with the set institutional objectives.
Teaching profession: The Centre for Educational Accreditation is responsible for establishing minimum standards for any teaching licenses granted to all teachers in non-state TEIs.
Fee-setting: All non-state institutions in Liberia are free to set their own student fees, while additionally receiving funding from donations and real estate (as many institutions tend to own land and property).
Admission selection and processes: The rules governing the admission processes for all non-state TEIs are stated to be evaluated by the NCHE, but no specific terms are set in the National Policy on Higher Education 2015.
Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability
Board: Each college or university in Liberia is granted institutional autonomy, but required to have a President (with an earned academic doctorate) which is responsible for administrative and academic operations, while all universities must be additionally governed by a Board of Trustees composed of 15 members. Academic programs in universities must be headed by a Vice-President or Provost (with an earned academic doctorate), while academic programs at colleges must be headed by an Academic Dean (with at least a master’s degree).
Reporting requirements: Any TEI which receives funding from the government is required to submit a written report to the NCHE at the end of the fiscal period detailing how the funds were used (including any measurable effects and improvements).
Inspection: According to the National Policy on Higher Education 2015, all non-state TEIs are subject to external (inspections by the NCHE) and internal (self-evaluation) quality assurance reviews which determine whether they continue to meet the required standards. While an exact timeline for these reviews was not set in the policy, the NCHE conducts a thorough evaluation of all non-state TEIs every three years before it issues institutions a renewed Permit to Operate.
Assessment: Students in state and non-state TEIs are required to take subject matter examinations to allow similar programs to be compared across institutions.
Diplomas and degrees : All non-state TEIs in Liberia may be accredited voluntarily by the National Accreditation Centre, which works closely with the NCHE. The criteria for accreditation include the assessment of institutional strategy, curriculum, financial viability, staff, and governance. Non-accredited institutions are not eligible for financial aid or scholarships, while their degrees are not recognized for state sector employment.
Sanctions: The NCHE is authorized to suspend or revoke a permit if at any time an institution fails to maintain minimum standards.
3.2 Supplementary private tutoring
Due to high numbers of the population living below the poverty line, the market for private supplementary tutoring in Liberia is quite limited, while the test preparation market remains negligible.
No information was found.
Financial operation and quality
No information was found.
According to the Code of Conduct for Teachers and School Administrators 2014, which applies to all teachers in state, private, community, and faith-based schools, teachers are prohibited from misusing their professional position “for private gain in the offering of education related goods or services to students, parents, or the community” (Article 5.1.2). Soliciting unauthorized money from students and parents or guardians is specifically prohibited under administrative offenses in the code of conduct (Article 6.3.1), as well as the Education Reform Act 2011 (Article 7.1).
