Comprehensive Sexuality Education
1. Context and background
Malawi has one of the highest rates of teenage pregnancy in the world (three times higher than the global average), an estimated 1,000,000 people living with HIV, and about 51% of the population are below the age of 18. In 2002, the Government introduced Life Skills, Sexual and Reproductive Education at primary and secondary school level, as a way of introducing children and young people to sexual and reproductive health (SRH) issues. The aim was also to empower students and teachers with the knowledge, values, attitudes, and skills to effectively deal with social and health challenges, including teenage pregnancies, HIV & AIDS, and various forms of abuse. By 2004, Life Skills Education was made a compulsory subject in primary schools and pre-service teacher training centres for primary school teachers.
2. Terminology
Sexuality education is referred to as 'Life Skills Education' (at primary level) and 'HIV' or 'Sexual and Reproductive Health Education' (at secondary level). The term 'comprehensive sexuality education' (CSE) is used in various government documents, such as the National Education Sector Investment Plan 2020-30, which refers to 'life skills and comprehensive sexual and reproductive health education' and the Malawi National Strategic Plan for HIV and AIDS 2020-25, which refers to 'comprehensive sexuality education'.
3. Laws and policies
3.1. Relevant international/regional agreements to which Malawi is a signatory
Malawi has ratified a number of international agreements that relate to sexuality education, including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in 1987, the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) in 1991, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) in 2009, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in 1993.
At the regional level, the Government of Malawi is a signatory of UNESCO’s Ministerial Commitment on comprehensive sexuality education and sexual and reproductive health services for adolescents and young people in Eastern and Southern Africa (2013). The commitment recognizes the urgency of the situation facing young people and includes recommendations for bold action in response to HIV and educational and health challenges, with countries committing to expanding sexuality education and health services. In 2021, Malawi renewed and expanded the Ministerial Commitment. The country is also a signatory to the African Union Maputo Plan of Action (signed in 2006), which aims for 'universal access to comprehensive sexual and reproductive health services In Africa' and the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) Protocol on Health (ratified in 2004), which has three articles relating to sexual and reproductive health (Article 16 covers reproductive health; Article 10 covers HIV & AIDS and STIs; and Article 17 covers childhood and adolescent health).
The table below provides a summary of how the international commitments relate to sexuality education.
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INTERNATIONAL |
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Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) Ratification date: 1987 |
Acknowledges the need to guarantee sexuality education free from discrimination and stereotypes, conveying gender equality values. |
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Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) Ratification date: 1991 |
Commits to the right to access appropriate health-related information. |
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Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) Ratification date: 2009 |
Commits to the highest attainable standard of health for persons with disabilities. |
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International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Ratification date: 1993 |
Acknowledges that the right to sexual and reproductive health is an integral part of the right to health. |
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UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education
Not ratified |
Reaffirms that education is a human right. It highlights states' obligations to ensure free and compulsory education, bans any form of discrimination and promotes equality of educational opportunity. |
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The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) Programme of Action
Attended |
Calls for sexuality education, counselling and support mechanisms for adolescents, and identifies essential topics. |
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REGIONAL |
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Ministerial Commitment on comprehensive sexuality education and sexual and reproductive health services for adolescents and young people in Eastern and Southern African (ESA) Ratification dates: 2013; renewed in 2021 |
Commits to ensuring comprehensive sexuality education and sexual and reproductive health services for young people. |
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3.2. Relevant national laws and policies mandating comprehensive sexuality education
The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology has a number of policies, guidelines, and strategic documents on education, SRH and rights, and HIV & AIDS, showing the Government's commitment to eliminating the spread of HIV and educating youth about their SRH rights. Together, these provide the foundation for incorporating sexuality education into the school curriculum (UNESCO, 2015; SERAT, 2019). While the Education Act 2013 does not directly refer to life skills or HIV education, the National Education Policy, which aims to 'coordinate and sustain a comprehensive response to HIV and AIDS' (policy objective 6) includes the provision of 'Life Skills Education, voluntary HIV testing, guidance and counselling services to all students including victims of drug and substance abuse and victims of gender based violence' and 'scaling up HIV and AIDS programs including sexual reproductive health'. This is further highlighted in the National Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights Policy 2017-22, which aims for the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology to 'implement life skills curriculum in both primary and secondary schools', 'provide age specific sexuality education to the youth' and strengthen support services and counselling services which, address young people’s SRH. Similar objectives are highlighted in the National Education Standards 2015 (Education Standard 6: Students’ safety and protection; Education Standard 22: Care and welfare of students) and the National HIV and AIDS Policy 2011-16. CSE is referenced in projects under the 2018/19 Education Sector Performance Report and numerous government strategic plan documents, such as the National Education Sector Plan 2008-2017, the National Strategy on Inclusive Education 2017-21, and the Ministry of Civic Education, Culture and Community Development Strategic Plan 2016-21. The Malawi National Strategic Plan for HIV and AIDS 2020-25 further aims to 'expand comprehensive sexuality education', 'expand and intensify existing life skills modules and SRH and HIV education for in-school and out-of-school youth' and 'provide comprehensive, age appropriate SRH, HIV and AIDS education for young people that addresses gender norms'. In addition, through the National Education Sector Investment Plan 2020-30, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology aspires to 'promote coordination and implementation of HIV & AIDS programmes in the education sector' and 'promote gender mainstreaming, girls education, sexual reproductive health and rights in primary schools'.
3.3. Curricula
CSE is part of the curriculum in both primary education (ages 6-13) and secondary education (ages 14-17). At primary level, Life Skills Education is taught from Standard 2 (around the age of 7), with content categorized according to three age brackets: age 5-8, age 9-12, and age 13-15 years. The content at primary level comprises six core elements: health promotion, social development, moral development, personal development, physical development, and entrepreneurship and the world of work. Key concepts at both primary and secondary level relate to sexuality and sexual behaviour, interpersonal relationships, human development and SRH, communication, negotiation and decision-making (SERAT, 2019; UNESCO, 2021). The National Education Sector Plan 2008-2017 aimed to review the course content to reflect reforms in primary and secondary education, including gender-related issues, special needs and HIV & AIDS, with the Malawi National Strategic Plan for HIV and AIDS 2020-25 aiming to expand CSE content so that it is comprehensive, age-appropriate, and addresses gender norms. It also focuses on encouraging behaviour such as delaying sexual activity, preventing gender-based violence, avoiding transactional and age-disparate sex, and building self-efficacy.
Mandatory or optional
Life Skills Education is compulsory at primary level and optional at secondary level. The subject was made compulsory in primary schools in 2004, a core learning area in 2006, and to be examinable in all public primary schools in 2010 as part of the primary education school-leaving certificate. While the subject is examinable at secondary level, it is an elective subject (SERAT, 2019).
Model of delivery
Life Skills Education is offered both as a stand-alone subject, as well as being integrated into other carrier subjects at primary and secondary level, such as the sciences (biology and home economics), social studies, geography, and languages (English and Chichewa) (SERAT, 2019).
Comprehensiveness of content
The Life Skills Education course was designed around principles of age-appropriateness, culture, and the local context in relation to topics, activities, case studies, and graphics. The content is targeted at the needs of young people and addresses public health objectives, such as reducing early and unintended pregnancy, HIV infections and other sexually STIs. In 2015, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology integrated several aspects of sexuality education into its Life Skills Education course to make the subject more comprehensive and to respond appropriately to the specific gender, rights, health, and SRH needs of young people in accordance with national laws and policies. According to an analysis conducted by UNESCO in 2019, the programme does have clear public health objectives, but falls short on: effective behaviour by emphasizing abstinence and not providing details on the knowledge and skills needed to address certain gender-related issues; avoiding concurrent and multiple sexual partnerships; and accessing and using different methods of contraception, including condoms. It also fails to address issues such as puberty, male circumcision, sexual orientation, and abortion. Topics such as SRH (which is central to CSE) are not well covered in the curriculum (SERAT, 2019). Another study revealed challenges relating to over-emphasis on abstinence, an unconducive learning environment, lack of parental reinforcement of SRH, and inadequate training for teachers.
Learning resources
Life Skills Education books are available for primary school students from standards 2-8 (in English and Chichewa for standards 2-4, but only in English for standards 5-8), as well as for students in teacher training centres. Teacher guides and syllabi are available for teachers of standards 2-8, with teaching guides available for tutors in teacher training centres. Both sets of teaching and learning materials were developed by curriculum specialists from the Malawi Institute of Education, representatives of primary and secondary teachers, school inspectors, and Ministry of Education, Science and Education officials, with financial support from development partners. According to SERAT, there are adequate teaching and learning materials for tutors and students in teacher training centres and primary school teachers, but there is a need for textbooks and other learning materials in public primary schools. Differences were noted in private and grant-aided schools, where student books were reported to be adequate and available in school libraries. Supplementary life skills books have been developed by partner agencies and approved by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, but these are mainly used in private schools (SERAT, 2019).
Content analysis revealed gaps in current and emerging knowledge on HIV & AIDS, gender-based violence, SRH, and human rights, among other topics. The inadequacy of learning materials has been highlighted as one of the biggest challenges in the delivery of Life Skills Education from both teachers and students. A critical shortage in life skills materials in Braille and Sign Language to meet the needs of students with visual and hearing impairment, has also been reported (SERAT, 2019).
3.4. Teachers
Following the introduction of Life Skills Education as a stand-alone subject, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology trained 40,482 in-service teachers in the delivery of Life Skills Education between 2001 and 2010. While this training programme has been ongoing since then, it has been delivered at a lower scale due to financial constraints (it is primarily supported by development partners) and because it generally targets public primary schools and teacher training centres (and not private schools and centres). The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, with support from UNFPA and UNESCO, has also been providing three-day online training courses in Life Skills Education for primary and secondary school teachers. The aim is to equip teachers with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to competently deal with CSE topics during lessons, and to equip their students with the necessary skills to cope with challenges they encounter in their everyday lives, including where they can access youth-friendly health services (SERAT, 2019).
Life Skills Education is taught by teachers with a national school certificate of education or a teacher education certificate. There are 16 teacher training centres in Malawi (8 public, and 8 private) as well as a teacher development programme, which includes college pre-service training, in-service training, school-based continuous professional development, guidelines, mentorships, workshops, and online courses. The course is taught in both first and second years in teacher training centres and is examinable through continuous assessment by the Malawi National Examinations Board . Life Skills Education tutors must have a Bachelor of Education or Master of Education (SERAT, 2019). The National Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights Policy 2017-22 aims to strengthen pre-service and in-service education for the delivery of sexual and reproductive health services.
3.5. Schools
Linkages have been established between the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology and the Ministry of Health in ensuring that SRH services target students and learners. This includes schools referring students to SRH, HIV and other social services, while the Ministry of Health and its partners conduct health and sanitation awareness talks and campaigns in schools. The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology also has a policy on the provision of SRH services, with schools expected to provide information on where to access such services, including counselling and referrals. However, the policy restricts service providers from distributing condoms and contraception services within primary or secondary school premises. According to the National Education Standards 2015, once schools identify students affected by early pregnancy, HIV and other conditions, they must support their learning and care. Information related to SRH services can also be provided through school-specific peer education programmes, such as girls’ clubs, health clubs, and AIDS Toto ('No to AIDS') clubs (SERAT, 2019). The National Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights Policy 2017-22 aims for the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology to support services that address young people with SRH-related issues, establish a counselling and referral system for boys and girls with SRH-related needs, and strengthen school clubs to address SRH issues.
4. Governance
4.1 Responsible ministries
The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology is responsible for all education in Malawi, with the Directorate of Inspectorate and Advisory Services being the subject lead and entity specifically responsible for Life Skills Education, mainly through curriculum development, implementation and monitoring. Other directorates within the the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology may also play specific roles in the planning, delivery and monitoring of Life Skills Education, such as the Directorate of Teacher Education and Development (overseeing teacher training and development), the Directorate of Basic Education (providing human, physical, and material resources at primary school level), and the Directorate of Education Planning (monitoring specific indicators for life skills and HIV & AIDS). The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology may also engage with local stakeholders and development partners in resource mobilization and the implementation of the programme, while there are also obvious linkages with the Ministry of Health in ensuring the relevant health programmes target students and learners.
4.2. Level of responsibility/decentralization and autonomy
The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology's education function is divided into six divisions and it is decentralized through local zones and districts. Institutional partnerships and arrangements at the national and lower levels are also key to the effective scaling up of the Life Skills Education programme.
4.3. Government budget allocation
According to the National Education Sector Investment Plan 2020-30, the Department of School Health, Nutrition and HIV and AIDS will have a total five-year budget of 231,000,000 MK (USD 284,758) to invest in promoting gender mainstreaming, girls' education, SRH and rights in primary schools, with indicators including the number of schools implementing gender, girls' education and SRH programmes and the number of education managers trained in these areas. Funding partners and United Nations agencies also contribute to the financial and technical support of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology and implementing partners on advocacy, development, and the institutionalization of Life Skills Education, although the exact amount contributed was not found.
5. Monitoring and reporting
Malawi’s EMIS does not currently contain indicators on Life Skills Education. However, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology has recognized the need for data on life skills and is in the process of integrating CSE indicators into the EMIS. This is in line with the 2013 Harare Ministerial Commitment on comprehensive sexuality education and sexual and reproductive health services for adolescents and young people in Eastern and Southern Africa (2013), which resolved that countries should adopt indicators on CSE. Monitoring of information related to CSE may also be included in national sector investment plans, with the National Education Sector Investment Plan 2020-30 including indicators on the number of schools implementing gender, girls' education and SRH programmes, the number of education managers trained in HIV programming, and the number of education managers trained in gender, girls' education and SRH programmes. The Malawi National Strategic Plan for HIV and AIDS 2020-25 also includes an indicator on the percentage of young people aged 10–24 attending school who have been reached by CSE and/or life skills–based HIV education in schools. The Ministry of Health collects data on SRH, the Ministry of Gender, Children, Disability and Social Welfare collects data on gender-based violence and adolescent girls and young women, while international non-governmental organizations collect data on the respective life skills programmes. However, this information is not shared formally or on a regular basis at the national and district levels (SERAT, 2019).
