NON-STATE ACTORS IN EDUCATION
2.2 Non-state education provision
3.1 Regulations by distinct levels of education
- Early childhood care and education (Entry/Establishment ○ Financial operation ○ Quality of teaching and learning ○ Equitable access ○ Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability)
- Primary and secondary education (Entry/Establishment ○ Financial operation ○ Quality of teaching and learning ○ Equitable access ○ Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability)
- Tertiary education (Entry/Establishment ○ Financial operation ○ Quality of teaching and learning ○ Equitable access ○ Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability)
3.2 Supplementary private tutoring
The 2001 Education Act (Art. 14), which covers early childhood care and education to tertiary education, refers only to the “proprietors of aided and private schools” who are fit and proper persons or bodies of persons responsible for the management of these schools. In parallel, the 2017-21 Education and Skills Sector Plan refers to “the role of non-government actors” in education provision, which includes the private sector and NGOs. The 1996 National Policy on Education aims at establishing new partnerships with all types of education providers, including “private sector providers, non-governmental organisations, local communities, and religious groups”. Furthermore, the 2017-21 Seventh National Development Plan 2017-21 outlines the government’s objective to support “private education and training providers” in the delivery of education and training for all at all levels. It refers to the role of cooperating partners and “non-state actors”, such as the private sector, civil society and faith-based organisations.
2.1 State education provision
State schools
In Zambia, most education at primary (ages 7-13) and secondary (ages 14-18) levels is provided by the state. Indeed, respectively 63.8% and 77.8% of primary and secondary schools in 2017 were public and 81% of students attended public schools for both levels. Public education is free and compulsory from age seven to 14 (grades 1 to 9). English is the primary language of instruction in public schools, but children are required to learn local languages, depending on their provincial district.
Non-state managed, state schools
No information was found.
Non-state funded, state schools
Public schooling is free from Grades 1 to 9, but parents are still expected to cover additional costs such as uniforms, stationery and books.
2.2 Non-state education provision
Independent, non-state schools
The 2001 Education Act (Art. 2) defines a “private school" as "a school in respect of which no financial assistance is provided by the Minister or in respect of which the only financial assistance provided by the Minister is a grant calculated at an annual rate not exceeding- (a) forty kwacha for each pupil for whom secondary education is provided at the school; and (b) twenty kwacha for each pupil for whom primary education is provided at the school”. Independent non-state schools (respectively 7.5% and 9.6% of primary and secondary schools in 2017 were independent and 3.7% of students attended this type of school for both levels) are called “private schools” and are owned and managed by religious institutions which are mostly Christian, private companies and individuals, non-governmental organisations or groups. They receive no subsidies from the government and collect user fees from parents.
The term “low-fee” private school does not appear explicitly in official governmental documents but in the scientific literature. The literature argues that the country has low-fee private schools, especially in early childhood education and care (Lusaka).
State-funded (government-aided), non-state schools
The 2001 Education Act (Art. 2) defines “aided school" as “a school (not being a Government school or private school or an educational institution for which a board of governors is established) which is established or maintained with the assistance of a grant or loan made by the Minister”. Grant-aided schools (respectively 2.5% and 12.2% of primary and secondary schools in 2017 were government-aided and 3.9% of students attended this type of school) are owned and managed in majority by religious institutions and other private individuals or groups. According to the SABER-EPS Framework, both grant-aided and community schools (see below) are considered government-funded private schools.
Academic and additional budgets in state-funded non-state schools are equivalent to per-student amounts funded in state schools. Grant-aided schools may be entitled to a subsidy, the provision of materials, operational and capital development costs or the provision of teachers who are staff members of the Ministry of Education. Nevertheless, government-aided schools do not receive funding targeted to specific student needs or start-up funding.
Contracted, non-state schools
No information was found.
No information was found in the official documents reviewed regarding homeschooling, including the 2017-21 Education and Skills Sector Plan, the 2011 Education Act and the 2017-21 Seventh National Development Plan. However, homeschooling seems to be allowed, as there are some support groups and (non-official) online resources for parents; indeed, there is a home-school academy in Lusaka that helps parents to homeschool.
2.3 Other types of schools
Homeschooling
No information was found in the official documents reviewed regarding homeschooling, including the 2017-21 Education and Skills Sector Plan, the 2011 Education Act and the 2017-21 Seventh National Development Plan. However, homeschooling seems to be allowed, as there are some support groups and (non-official) online resources for parents; indeed, there is a home-school academy in Lusaka that helps parents to homeschool.
Market contracted (voucher schools)
No information was found in official statistics.
Unregistered/Unrecognised schools
No information was found.
Community Schools
The 1996 National Policy on Education states that “communities that wish to establish schools, that would operate as community schools outside the government or District Education Board system, will be strongly encouraged to do so. The ministry will contribute to the running costs of such schools through the provision of teachers and teaching supplies, or through a system of capitation grants”. Community schools (respectively 26.3% and 0.4% of primary and secondary schools in 2017 were community schools and 11.4% of students attended this type of school for both levels) are managed and run by the Parent Community School Committees (PCSC), composed of parents, community school headteacher and teachers, and prominent community members (2016 Operational Guidelines for Community Schools). They began primarily in rural areas as the result of insufficient government school supply or the high cost of public schooling due to parental contribution for school supplies and other schooling costs and have been recognised by the government since 1998. The government has a collaborative relationship with the Zambia Community Schools Secretariat (ZCSS), an umbrella NGO for community schools, to promote their development. Community schools can be formally recognised by the ZCSS or Ministry of Education if they enrol children who have never been to school but are older than the age of entry to basic education and those who have no other education alternative in the community or who are orphans, poor or vulnerable children. Some community schools receive grants from the government. NGO-sponsored or supported schools can receive different kinds of assistance including training for teachers, investments in school infrastructure and facilities and provision of teaching and learning materials. Community schools must register with the ZCSS and Ministry and complete the annual school census form to be eligible for government funding. In 2016, the Ministry of General Education released Operational Guidelines for Community Schools.
The education sector is primarily governed by two ministries. The Ministry of General Education (MoGE) manages early childhood education, primary, secondary, as well as youth and adult learning education (YALE) and the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) is responsible for tertiary education. Both provide private institutions with “professional support in the form of advisory, training and evaluation services” (p. 101). While early childhood education is under the Ministry of General Education, components of care and development appear in the Ministy of Health and the Ministry of Youth, Sport and Child Development. At the higher education level, the Department of University Education “is tasked with policy formulation, coordination and promotion of University Education through the provision of guidelines to both public and private providers”. It is also responsible for enhancing the private sector role in the provision of university education. The Ministry of National Guidance and Religious Affairs aims to “facilitate the mainstreaming of Christian values” in different sectors, including education. No additional information was found in this regard.
Vision: The main regulation regarding non-state provision is the 2011 Education Act which supports the establishment and maintenance of the private educational institution. The 2013 Higher Education Act No. 4 (Art. 45) states that a higher education institution may enter into a public-private partnership in accordance with the 2009 Public-Private Partnership Act. In parallel, the 2017-21 Seventh National Development Plan mentions that the government “will provide a conducive environment for private sector participation in an effort to raise the current private provision, which stands at 8.8%”. In addition, the 2017-21 Education and Skills Sector Plan aims to enhance the private sector participation through participation promotion, public-private partnership (PPP) and the Skills development fund implementation. Finally, the 2006 National ICT Policy also aims to create favourable conditions for private sector organisations, institutions and establishments to invest in education and human resource development programmes as well as in the training and updating of personnel skills.
3.1 Regulations by distinct levels of education
Early Childhood Education (ECE) has been historically provided by non-state providers. Since 2012, the Ministry of General Education has implemented early childhood education centres, which are mostly pre-schools annexed to existing primary schools. Preschools are operated by local authorities, local communities, NGOs and private individuals. Attendance is not compulsory and the rate of enrolment is still below 10% of the total population of the target age group. In 2015, the Ministry of General Education established the Directorate of Early Childhood Education (DECE) which elevated ECE to the same administrative level as other education subsectors. The Ministry of General Education estimates that the share of pupils in private ECCE programmes is likely to be over 80%. Private ECCE institutions are exclusively found in urban areas.
The 2001 Education Act includes early childhood under the term “basic education” and the Day Nurseries Act (2011) provides for the registration and regulation of day nurseries as a childcare structure.
Registration and approval: Any person receiving or proposing to receive any children in a day nursery must apply to the local authority within whose area such day nursery is situated (Day Nurseries Act, 2011, Art. 6). Every application for registration shall be accompanied by the payment of a fee. The local authority imposes different conditions concerning the limitation of the number of children, the qualifications and experience of the employees and the equipment of the institution. The form of application for registration of a day nursery appears in Form 2 of the 2011 Day Nurseries Act. In this respect, the person proposing to open a private day nursery must mention/describe the period of residence in the country, the details of occupants of the premises, the qualifications and experience held by the applicant in the field of child care, the stage age group of children to be catered for, the arrangements proposed for regular medical examination of staff, the feeding arrangements and types of meals proposed, the number and approximate sizes of rooms to be used by children and the toilet facilities for children.
At the early childhood education level, the Ministry of General Education is responsible for the registration and accreditation of non-state schools. All non-state schools must have land, facilities and assets. The application must indicate the qualifications and teaching experience of the owner and teachers and the types of education to be offered as well as the state of the finances and the details of enrolment. In addition, private schools must declare whether the buildings used are rented or owned and precise the sizes and particulars of windows and rooms of any subsequent buildings.
Licence: Owners must have a certificate of registration issued by the local authority. Each registration certificate expires on 31 December following its issue (Day Nurseries Act, 2001, Art. 6). In parallel, private institutions shall also be registered and have a certificate of registration (Education Act, 2011, Art. 14).
Profit-making: The government allows for-profit institutions.
Taxes and subsidies: No information was found. Early childhood education institutions are required to report to the government on the use of public funds as a condition of funding.
Quality of teaching and learning
Curriculum and education standards: The Directorate of Early Childhood Education (DECE) has developed the Early Childhood Education Standards Guidelines and Standards Monitoring Tool, the National Early Childhood Education Curriculum and teaching/learning materials to improve equity and quality. All school types have to follow the standard guideline, be monitored by the government, and follow the government-specified curriculum and educational materials. The 2005 Report “Educating the Nation” highlights the lack of uniformity in curricula and the absence of set standards among providers in ECCE. The use of local languages in early childhood education was made a requirement following the designation of early childhood education as part of mainstream education.
Teaching profession: At the childhood care level, teachers must describe their qualifications and relevant experience in childhood care as part of the registration process. In parallel, the Directorate of Early Childhood Education (DECE) has developed the National Teacher Education Curriculum. Teachers are trained for early childhood education in colleges of education, such as David Livingstone College of Education (DALICE) and Kitwe College of Education (KCE) and Kasama College of Education. No regulation on certification requirements was found.
Fee-setting: Grant-aided institutions and community schools are not allowed to charge any admission and tuition fee from learners at the early childhood and education level (Education Act, 2011). Institutions run on a profit basis can charge market value fees (National Policy on Education, 1996).
Admission selection and processes: No regulations were found on admission criteria and selectivity in private day nurseries. At the early childhood education level, as part of basic education, all children shall have equal access to quality education and stipulates that no aided or community educational institution shall refuse to admit a child on the grounds that the applicant is unable to pay the registration fee, among other things (Education Act, 2011).
Policies for vulnerable groups: No regulations were found on support for families with disadvantaged backgrounds. The 2017-21 Education and Skills Sector Plan aims to remove barriers to early childhood education, especially for people in rural and hard-to-reach areas, by “leveraging the support of communities, the private sector and other stakeholders”.
Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability
Reporting requirements: There are no sanctions based on the results of school inspections or performance for early childhood education institutions.
Inspection: Any person who refuses admission to a day nursery to an inspector shall be liable to a fine (Day Nurseries Act, 2011, Art. 12). At the early childhood education level, the role of the inspection system is to vet and approve the registration of aided, community, and private educational institutions (Education Act, 2011). The 2017-21 Education and Skills Sector Plan also aims at implementing internal quality assurance of education delivery at the early childhood education level.
Child assessment: There is currently no standard mechanism in place for systematic assessment of learning outcomes at the early childhood education level, however, the 2017-21 Education and Skills Sector Plan aims at implementing child developmental milestones assessments.
Sanctions: The local authority may, by order, cancel the registration of the day nursery concerned, for instance in case of non-compliance with any condition imposed in the Day Nurseries Act (2011). At the early childhood education level, the Ministry of Education may cancel the registration of a private school if, in its opinion, the school has ceased to comply with any of the provisions of the Act (Education Act, 2011, Art. 16).
Registration and approval: The Ministry of General Education is responsible for the registration and accreditation of non-state schools. Any person, community, or organization is free to apply to set up a school and to receive government funding as an “aided” school. Any person wishing to establish a non-state school must first apply to the Minister for registration (Education Act, 2011, Art. 14). To establish and operate private schools, schools are required to pay registration and renewal fees. Providers must also pay a fee to apply for aided status. For community schools, government guidelines define the minimum requirements a community must meet before establishing a community school along with specific procedures for registration (2016 Operational Guidelines for Community Schools). In addition, the Minister may, by statutory instrument, make regulations on the documents to be submitted in support of applications. The application forms must be completed in quadruplicate and submitted to the Minister and the Chief Education Officer of the area in which the school is or will be situated (Art. 18c). All non-state schools must have land, facilities and assets (ownership of land or buildings). The application for the renewal of registration shall be made on or before the 1st day of July in the year preceding the year for which the renewal or the registration is applied. It must precise, among other things, the qualifications and teaching experience of the owner and teachers and the types of courses to be offered as well as the state of the finances and the details of enrolment. In addition, private schools must declare whether the buildings used are rented or owned and precise the sizes and particulars of windows and rooms of any subsequent buildings.
Licence: Private schools shall be registered and have a certificate of registration. The list of registered independent private schools must be published in a daily newspaper, as well as admissions guidelines for those schools. For government-funded private schools, parents can request the information from the government directly (Education Act, 2011, Art. 14).
WASH: Private schools must have piped water and electricity. The 2017-21 Education and Skills Sector Plan supports the provision of appropriate water and sanitation facilities in all educational institutions. It monitors the proportion of schools with access to basic drinking water, single-sex basic sanitation facilities and basic handwashing facilities.
Profit-making: The government allows for-profit schools for both independent private schools and government-funded private schools. The 1996 National Policy on Education states that schools can be established for profits purposes and “charging market value fees” (p. 137). Communal schools run by local communities and NGOs are not-for-profit.
Taxes and subsidies: Grant-aided schools and community schools receive academic and additional budgets equivalent to per-student amounts funded in public schools. For example, grant-aided schools may be entitled to: a subsidy; the provision of materials; operational and capital development costs; the provision of teachers who are staff members of the Ministry of General Education; and any other form of aid determined by the minister. In community schools, grants have been earmarked for: infrastructure maintenance; administration; teaching and learning materials; and for school health and nutrition community schools. For accountability and management, grants are administered by the Parent Community School Committees (PCSC). Both grant-aided schools and community schools are required to report to the government on the use of public funds as a condition of continued funding. In both independent private schools and government-funded private schools, the Education Board has the legal authority to decide how resources are allocated to classrooms, with final review by central authorities (for instance, on class size).
Quality of teaching and learning
Curriculum and education standards: The level of autonomy given to the non-state school varies. Private schools can determine how the curriculum is delivered, with review by central authorities. In parallel, in grant-aided schools and community schools, the Ministry of General Education specifies the curriculum. In government-funded private schools, the state determines the total learning time with respect to each study area in the curriculum. The English language shall be used as the medium of instruction in all schools (Education Act, 2011).
Textbooks and learning materials: In independent private schools, the minister specifies the books, and other materials to be used. In government-funded private schools, the state determines the textbooks used.
Teaching profession: Community school teachers shall have a basic school teacher's qualification (Education Act, 2011). The 2013 Teaching Profession Act adds that teachers shall apply to the Teaching Council for registration, which issues a certificate of registration. It states that the Council must approve the training programmes provided in the colleges of education.
Private schools have the authority to appoint, deploy, dismiss, and set the salaries of teachers without review by central authorities. In grant-aided schools, the board of management appoints the school’s teachers, determines teacher salaries, and dismisses teachers, with review by central authorities. In community schools, the Ministry of General Education may appoint and deploy some teachers where qualified teachers are lacking.
Corporal punishment: Corporal punishment is not allowed in public and private schools person who contravenes this provision is liable to a fine or imprisonment (Education Act, 2011, Art. 28).
Other safety measures and COVID-19: The Minister may, with the concurrence of the Minister responsible for health can close any school for health reasons (Education Act, 2011, S. 32).
Fee-setting: Grant-aided schools and community schools are not allowed to charge any admission and tuition fee from learners, except for grant-aided highs schools (Education Act, 2011). The National Policy on Education (1996) states that institutions run on a profit basis can charge market value fees. Religious agency schools and colleges and schools established and operated by local or international companies can charge fees or not.
Admission selection and processes: Government-funded private schools can select students based on both academic performance and geography, however, all learners shall have equal access to quality education and no head of a public, aided, or community educational institution shall refuse to admit an applicant to the institution on grounds that the applicant or the applicant’s parent: “(a) is unable to pay, or has not paid, the school fee determined by the educational institution; (b) is unable to provide the applicant with the items of clothing or other necessities determined by the head of the institution; or (c) does not subscribe to the mission of the educational institution or its religious practices” (Education Act, 2011).
Policies for vulnerable groups: In community schools, grants are allocated to support orphans and vulnerable children. The government does not provide tax subsidies or cash transfers to families whose children attend independent private schools.
Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability
School board: The board of management in grant-aided schools appoints the school’s teachers, determines teacher salaries, and dismisses teachers. Associations can be created within the framework of a subsidised or private school (Education Act, 2011, S. 29). The regulation does not specify the composition of the school board management.
Reporting requirements: There are no sanctions based on the results of school inspections or school performance on standardised exams. Government-aided and community schools must submit audited accounts to the minister of education within 90 days of the end of the institution’s financial year.
School inspection: The role of the inspection system is to vet and approve the registration of aided, community, and private educational institutions and to ensure that all schools are inspected at least three times a year. Schools are required to submit an improvement or operational plan (Education Act, 2011).
Student assessment: National examinations are conducted annually in grades 7, 9, and 11 in both independent private schools and government-funded private schools. The National Assessment System (NAS) also covers students enrolled in grade 5 and grade 9 in public, private, grant-aided and community schools, and assesses students in three subjects administered in English.
Diplomas and degrees: The owners of a registered private school must obtain the Minister's approval for the issuance of certificates (Education Act, 2011, Art. 12, S. 18).
Sanctions: The Ministry of Education may cancel the registration of a private school if, in its opinion, the school has ceased to comply with any of the provisions of the Act, has been run in a manner prejudicial to the interests of learners or has remained closed for a consecutive period of six months or more (Education Act, 2011, Art. 16).
Tertiary education institutions consist of universities and colleges, which may be either public (six public universities in 2017) or private (61 private universities in 2017). In 2017, 92,000 students were enrolled at university but the rate of absorption remains is estimated to be at 12% for both public and private universities. Public universities account for 54% of total university enrolment. Some universities are also operating as faith-based institutions. Private universities are defined as not established or maintained by the Government or a local authority with public funds. The 2013 Higher Education Act No. 4 provides for the registration and regulation of private higher education institutions and the 2019 Higher Education Policy refers to private educational institutions which are education and skills training institutions that are privately owned and run.
Registration and approval: A person shall not operate a private higher education institution unless it is registered under the 2013 Higher Education Act No. 4 (2013). In this regard, a private higher education institution shall, in the registration process, develop an operational plan which includes the proposed education level or course of study, the governance structure, the premises where the institution is to operate, the requirements of the course or level of education to achieve the learning outcomes and the level and name of the award that may be attained on successful completion of the course or level of education (Higher Education Act No. 4, 2013, Art. 17). This plan must be approved by the Higher Education Authority (HEA) whose mandate is to coordinate, regulate, supervise and monitor standards of higher education and to register higher education institutions and accredit learning programmes. The application requires the payment of the prescribed fee.
The Higher Education Authority (HEA) can approve an application for registration under some conditions listed in Article 20. For instance, the private institution must be consistent with the needs of learners and the subsisting national education policy. It must also fulfil the minimum requirements of health and safety and conform with the building regulations. The role of the HEA includes developing guidelines for registration. The Ministry of Higher Education developed guidelines for university accreditation criteria in 2017, to support the evaluation and recognition of academic programmes and ensure that they meet the necessary quality requirements.
Licence: The Authority shall, “where it approves an application for registration, issue the applicant with a certificate of registration in the prescribed form” (Higher Education Act No. 4, 2013, Art. 21). The owner of a private higher education institution shall not operate an institution other than the premises specified in its certificate of registration.
Profit-making: Profit-making is allowed. In parallel, “a higher education institution may pay to a person who makes a discovery, invention or improvement any bonus, fee or royalty therefor, or make such arrangement for that person to share in the profits derived therefrom, as the higher education institution may determine” (Higher Education Act No. 4, 2013, Art. 24).
Taxes and subsidies: Aided higher education institution means “a college, other than a public college, established or maintained by any person, organisation or community with assistance from the Ministry” (Higher Education Act No. 4, 2013, Art. 1). In this regard, the 2017-21 Seventh National Development Plan aims to promote private sector participation in the provision of higher education and to increase private sector participation in the financing of higher education. However, the majority of private institutions are self-financing in terms of personal remunerations, infrastructure and programme development.
Quality of teaching and learning
Curriculum and education standards: The Higher Education Authority (HEA) sets standards for programmes and lectures, providing quality assurance to all registered higher education institutions.
Teaching profession: The 2017-21 Education and Skills Sector Plan aims at enhancing the qualifications of lecturing staff in public and private universities. Article 20 of the Higher Education Authority (HEA) states that the teaching staff “are qualified for the purpose of efficient provision of qualitative higher education”. The Council of the higher education institution determines the salaries and other conditions of service of the staff of the institution.
The country adopted the 2019 Employment Code Act, which includes employees in private and public sectors.
Fee-setting: Private universities are funded by user fees charged by the universities. The council of the private institution determines all fees for the higher education institution (Higher Education Act No. 4, 2013, Art. 24).
Admission selection and processes: The Senate shall “regulate and determine the requirements for the admission of persons to the higher education institution and courses of study in the higher education institution and their continuance in such courses” (Higher Education Act No. 4, 2013, Art. 36).
Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability
Board: The 2013 Higher Education Act No. 4 established the Higher Education Authority (HEA), a grant-aided institution whose mandate is to coordinate, regulate, supervise and monitor standards of higher education. All of the 11 members of the Board of the Authority is appointed by the Minister of Higher Education. The role of the HEA includes developing guidelines for registration, setting standards for programs and lectures, providing quality assurance to all registered higher education institutions. The owner of a private higher education institution shall appoint a council (Higher Education Act No. 4, 2013, Art. 24).
Reporting requirements: The Higher Education Authority, whose mandate is advisory, regulatory, policy formulation, quality assurance, and governance was established in 2013. The Ministry of Higher Education undertakes an annual survey among private universities to retrieve key data, including on student enrolments. Institutions must also submit to the Minister a report concerning their activities during the financial year.
Inspection: The Zambia Qualifications Authority (ZAQA) and the Higher Education Authority (HEA) play a critical role in assuring the quality of higher education by monitoring both public and private higher education institutions. Both are mandated to undertake periodic monitoring visits to both public and private higher education institutions, using standardized instruments. The ZAQA, which was established by the government in 2011, aims to register, accredit and validate qualifications. An inspector may, at any reasonable time, without prior notice, and on the authority of a warrant, enter any premises of a higher education institution “that the inspector has reasonable grounds to believe is used by any person for the commission of an offence or contrary to the provisions of this Act”. The inspector can search the premises, search any person on the premises, take extracts from any document, demand the production of certificates and makes other inquiries (Higher Education Act No. 4, 2013, Art. 10).
Student assessment: The Senate shall have control and general direction of the standards of education, assessment and research within the higher education institution (Higher Education Act No. 4, 2013, Art. 36).
Diplomas and degrees: Private higher education institutions provide education that leads to a qualification of Certificate, Diploma, Bachelor’s Degree, Master’s Degree and Doctorate Degree. The Zambia Qualifications Authority (ZAQA) accredit and validate qualifications. A person must not claim to another person that he or she can offer a programme of study that will result in a degree or certificate that will be recognised by persons in the industry or field to which the degree or certificate relates (Higher Education Act No. 4, 2013, Art. 49).
Sanctions: The Authority may order the closure of an institution where the owner of the institution fails to take specified remedial action. A private institution that is deregistered must surrender the original registration certificate to the Authority within seven days of deregistration (Higher Education Act No. 4, 2013, Art. 22).
3.2 Supplementary private tutoring
Non-state schools are free to offer private tuition although there is no evidence to suggest that private tuition by centres or individuals are regulated under current education regulations. As part of the registration process, private providers must declare whether they offer private tuition (tutorial).
The Minister of Education announced in 2013 that all private tutoring was prohibited in schools at weekends and during holidays and in 2019, the Ministry clarified that it applied only to public schools and not to private ones. Private schools “are still free to conduct tuitions”.
Financial operation and quality
The Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (2010), cited in Bray, 2021 reported that 6.1% of sampled Grade 6 students in 2007 were receiving private tutoring. No regulation was found on the operation and quality of private tutoring.
Teachers engage in private tuition in some cases to supplement their low salaries even if in 2013, the government banned state teachers from participating in private tuition although they can still offer tuition to students at no cost. Before their abolition in 2011, teachers were able to work in academic production units (APUs) and receive a supplementary income (p. 67). This programme, categorized as non-state provision, was offered in state schools for students not selected for secondary government schools.
The 2017-21 Education and Skills Sector Plan aims to discourage “manipulative teacher behaviour that forces learners to attend private tuition”, which poses corruption risks (p. 183).
This profile was drafted by Miwa Okajima during her internship with the GEM Report.
