NON-STATE ACTORS IN EDUCATION
2.2 Non-state education provision
3.1 Regulations by distinct levels of education
- Early childhood care and education (Entry/Establishment ○ Financial operation ○ Quality of teaching and learning ○ Equitable access ○ Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability)
- Primary and secondary education (Entry/Establishment ○ Financial operation ○ Quality of teaching and learning ○ Equitable access ○ Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability)
- Tertiary education (Entry/Establishment ○ Financial operation ○ Quality of teaching and learning ○ Equitable access ○ Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability)
3.3 Supplementary private tutoring
The 2018 Law n° 36 determining the organization of education (Art. 19), which covers early childhood care and education to tertiary education, stipulates that private schools are « schools established by individuals, national non-governmental organizations, international non-governmental organizations, associations or private stakeholders ». In addition, “national and international NGOs, associations and private actors” participate in formal education in accordance with relevant laws and based on their agreement with the government (Art. 32).
2.1 State education provision
State schools
Education is compulsory from age six to 12 years. Primary (age seven to 12) is compulsory and free in public schools. In 2019, public schools accounted for 25.6% of schools at the primary level and 30.68% at the secondary level. In 2018, 31.6% of children attended public primary schools and 32.2% public secondary schools.
Non-state managed, state schools
Public schools are run by Government but their management may be handed over to associations, districts, municipalities, towns, provinces, or the city of Kigali in accordance with laws or agreements. If the management of these schools is entrusted to an association, its contribution is decided by mutual agreement.
Non-state funded, state schools
In 2003, Rwanda introduced free public education as part of government policy; however, studies investigate the impact of the ‘hidden costs’ of schooling in the context of this fee-free education policy.
Public schools can take different forms. They can be built by the government with or without the help of Rwandan individuals or associations, or they can be built with foreign cooperation, support from colonialists or a grant to the government. They may also be built on land that has not been donated by the government or any other authorized official. Finally, public schools may have been private schools or government-subsidized schools in the past that were turned over to the government by their owners through agreements.
2.2 Non-state education provision
In 2018, non-state primary schools were owned by Catholics (39.6%) and Protestant (22.3%) communities, individuals/NGOs (5.4%), parents’ associations (4.7%) and Adventist (2%) and Islamic (0.7%) communities. At the secondary non-state schools were owned by Catholics (38.3%) and Protestant (18.2%) communities, parents’ associations (6%), individuals/NGOs (5.2%), and 7th Day Adventist (1.1%) and Islamic (1%) communities. Similarly, in 2019, 60.96 % of all schools were run by non-governmental Christian organisations, of which 38.89% were Catholic and 20.43% Protestant. There was also a share of 2.42 % of schools run by Muslims and other religious providers.
Independent, non-state schools
Private schools are defined as “schools built by individuals or an association” with their own funds or government-subsidized schools which Government gave to partners “when it found it beneficial to the country or as requested by partners according to agreements”. They are run by their owners.
In 2018, at the primary level, private schools accounted for 13.4% of schools and 4.1% of children attended private schools. At the secondary level, private schools accounted for 18.2% of schools and 12.4% of children attended private schools.
Rwanda does not use the term “low-fee” private schools in its official documents.
State-funded (government-aided), non-state schools
Government-subsidized schools are funded by the government but are operated by non-governmental organizations. They are run by their owners in collaboration with the Government according to their agreements. The Government has the duty to provide all “the requirements to ensure free education” in these schools.
They can take different forms. They can be built by Government on property given to a private person or an association or built by the Government with the help of an association and on the latter's property. In addition, it may be a school built by an association on its own land, but for which the government has contributed to the rehabilitation, extension or equipment. The associations that built these schools, with the support of the Government, are obliged to repair, enlarge and equip them. Only the government registers students, appoints teachers and other support staff governed by the labour code and pays them. The official Gazette no 50 of 14/12/2015 (Art. 14) states that “funds used by government-subsidized school are funds allocated by the state, funds from parents, those allocated by the organization or individual person who signed the agreement with the state, funds from school activities and those from the tuition fees shall be used only in school activities. Government contribution to the government-subsidized school shall be communicated to the other party and the owner of the school shall also communicate his/her contribution to the school” (p. 15).
Religious schools can be aided by the State; Christian government-aided schools are mainly financed by the government and owning churches. The contribution of the government includes staff salary, construction of the schools’ infrastructure, and provision of learning facilities like school curricula and books.
In 2018, at the primary level, government-aided schools accounted for 61.2% of schools and 64.3% of children attended these schools. At the secondary level, government-aided schools accounted for 51.6% of schools and 55.3% of children attended these schools and 12.4% private schools.
Contracted, non-state schools
No information was found.
2.3 Other types of schools
Homeschooling
The 2018 Law n° 36 (Art. 7) states that “education within the family is provided by the parents, guardians and people who stay with the child. It aims to provide a child with knowledge and ethical values." Furthermore, the Government sets guidelines for family education, makes follow-up on the implementation thereof and provides support where necessary. Parents “must provide good education to their children and other children under their care [and] cater for the welfare of the children to ensure their healthy development" (Art. 28-29).
In parallel, regarding distance education, the Ministry of Education adopted a National Framework on Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) and Open Educational Resource (OER) in 2018. The 7-Year Government Programme (2010–17) recommended that at least 50% and 30% of course programmes should be delivered through Open, Distance and e-Learning (ODeL) mode in higher and secondary education, respectively. In times of the COVID-19 pandemic, children received pedagogical content through the use of radio. In addition, the plan to distribute computers to students to provide distance learning during school closures due to COVID 19 is currently underway. The plan will take into consideration private students as well those on a government loan.
Market contracted (Voucher schools)
No information was found.
Unregistered/Unrecognised schools
No information was found.
The Ministry of Education (MINEDUC) is responsible for the management of all levels of formal education and is composed of three sub-sectors: Basic education, Technical and Vocational Training and Higher Learning Institutions. Under the Ministry of Education, the Workforce Development Authority (WDA) sets standards for accrediting private training institutions. In parallel, the Higher Education Council (HEC) encourages regulated private and non-governmental initiatives in establishments, funding and running of higher education institutions. It oversees the accreditation of private higher education institutions. Finally, the Rwanda Education Board (REB) oversees education up to secondary including teacher training colleges.
Vision: The 2018 Law n° 36 (Art. 31) stipulates that parents have the right to choose for the children if they fill all conditions, “a school that meets their wishes and abilities”. The Education Sector Strategic Plan 2018-24 states that the role of the private sector needs to “go beyond issues of access and system expansion, requiring close engagement with the statutory policy planners and quality assurance authorities”. This will require the “creation of sufficient incentives for private sector participation in education and ensuring providers meet the required standards”. The 2013-18 Private Sector Development and Youth Employment Strategy is more general but also covers education. It supports the promotion of workplace readiness programmes including internship, mentorship and on-job training programmes. Rwanda does not have a Religious ministry separate from MINEDUC that makes decisions on non-state education.
3.1 Regulations by distinct levels of education
Formal education is given in pre-nursery schools (children between 1 and 3 years of age) and nursery schools (4 to 6 years old). In 2018, private pre-nursery centres represented 76 % while public centres represented 24%. They were owned by parents’ associations (39.6%), individuals/NGOs (27.1%), the government (24.4%) and catholic (5.6%), Islamic (2.1%), Protestant (1%) and Adventist (1%) communities. Among the children enrolled in pre-nursery centres 55.4% were enrolled in private pre-nursery centres while 44.6% were enrolled in public centres. In 2018, most nursery schools were community-based and located within compounds of public schools; 11.17% were public while 50.8% were government-aided and 35% were private. They were owned by individuals/NGOs (78.3%), parents’ associations (26.1%), Catholic community (25.3%), Protestant community (22.8%), the government (14.3%) and Adventist (2.4%) and Islamic (0.9%) communities. In addition, 14.1% of children attended public schools, 48% government-aided schools and 37.9% private schools.
In 2019, 47.4% of all ECCE institutions were owned by Protestant and Catholic church providers. Less than 1% were institutions owned by Muslim communities and 1.9% were owned by other religions. Finally, 34.5% of all institutions were owned by private providers.
Registration and approval: The request for authorisation to open a private nursery shall be made in writing by the owner of the school to the Public Agency in charge of education quality, with a copy to the Mayor of the District in which the school is located. The 2016 Ministerial Order n° 003 (Art. 7) lists the documents required in a registration request, which include the list of required teaching staff and other employees indicating their qualifications; a detailed document describing buildings, materials and; details on the conditions of admission for pupils/students and on the teaching programmes that shall be followed by the school; the number of students anticipated; and a document indicating the initial annual budget and the source of funds.
For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Licence: See Multi-level regulations.
Profit-making: See Multi-level regulations.
Taxes and subsidies: See Multi-level regulations.
Quality of teaching and learning
Curriculum or learning standards: See Multi-level regulations.
Teaching profession: Nursery school teachers must have an A-level general certificate (A2) of Education. However, where necessary, other people who do not have this qualification, but who have experience enabling them to educate and teach at this level may be employed (Law n° 23, 2012, Art. 31). For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Fee-setting: Private school fees shall be determined according to the action plan examined by the School General Assembly and submitted to the District for approval (Law n° 23, 2012, Art. 41).
Admission selection and processes: See Multi-level regulations.
Policies for vulnerable groups: A Presidential Order shall establish a District Education Fund designed to “help destitute children to pay school costs” (Law n° 23, 2012, Art. 41).
Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability
Reporting requirements: See Multi-level regulations.
Inspection: See Multi-level regulations.
Child assessment: The Ministry of Education undertakes early identification of disabilities and assessment together with the Ministry of Health and carries out school readiness programmes and assessments.
Sanctions: In 2019, some schools were closed by the Ministry of Education “since they did not meet the quality standards”.
Registration and approval: The request for authorization to open a primary or secondary private school shall be made in writing by the owner of the school to the Public Agency in charge of education quality, with a copy to the Mayor of the District in which the school is located. The 2016 Ministerial Order n° 003 (Art. 7) lists the documents required in a registration request, which include the list of required teaching staff and other employees indicating their qualifications; a detailed document describing buildings, materials and; details on the conditions of admission for pupils/students and on the teaching programmes that shall be followed by the school; the number of students anticipated; and a document indicating the initial annual budget and the source of funds. For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Licence: See Multi-level regulations.
Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH): The District Education Council in public and private schools must provide views on issues related to welfare, hygiene and diseases prevention in schools. For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Profit-making: See Multi-level regulations.
Taxes and subsidies: See Multi-level regulations.
Quality of teaching and learning
Curriculum or learning standards: Since 2019, Kinyarwanda has to be taught as a mandatory subject in both private and public lower-primary schools. In addition, all public schools that previously used English or French as the language of instruction at the lower primary level are allowed to continue this practice. All public and government-subsidised schools that currently use Kinyarwanda as the language of instruction at the lower primary level will gradually switch to using English as the language of instruction. In addition, according to the official Gazette no 03 of 10/01/2016, in the second cycle, the language of instruction is English for all subjects except Kinyarwanda and French languages. Nevertheless, some private schools use English or French as the language of instruction in the first cycle of primary. For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Textbooks and learning materials: The current version of the 2018 Law n° 36 does not mention textbooks and learning materials in private institutions. Previously, the 2003 Organic Law n° 20 (Art. 36) specified that private institutions had to have classrooms and necessary and sufficient equipment.
Teaching profession: Primary school teachers must have at least an A-level general certificate (A2) of Education, but persons holding an A-level certificate other than an A-level certificate of Education must have an O-level certificate of teaching ability (Law n° 23, 2012, Art. 37). For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Corporal punishment: The Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children states that corporal punishment of children is considered unlawful in schools, but there does not appear to be an explicit prohibition in legislation. The 2018 Law n° 71 on child protection (Art. 28) protects children from "severe" and "excessive" corporal punishment. In addition, the Ministerial Instructions n° 001 of 10 May 2017 (Art. 26) prohibits corporal punishment in primary and secondary public, private and government-subsidised schools.
Other safety measures and COVID-19: The Response Plan of the Ministry of Education to the COVID-19 Outbreak outlines efforts to build WASH capacity in and around schools to mitigate the impacts of COVID-19. This includes both the purchase of basic supplies (handwashing facilities, for example) and the incorporation of low-cost and locally resourced materials, such as locally made soap.
Fee-setting: Private school fees shall be determined according to the action plan examined by the School General Assembly and submitted to the District for approval (Law n° 23, 2012, Art. 41).
Admission selection and processes: See Multi-level regulations.
Policies for vulnerable groups: A “Presidential Order shall establish a District Education Fund designed to help destitute children to pay school costs” (Law n° 23, 2012, Art. 41).
Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability
School board: A private school must have a Students’ council, a Teachers’ council, a Sector education council and a District education council.
Reporting requirements: See Multi-level regulations.
School inspection: See Multi-level regulations.
Student assessment: In both private and public schools, each end of the cycle shall be sanctioned by a national examination. Students who complete the first cycle receive an O-level certificate. Those who complete the second cycle shall be awarded an A-level certificate.
Diplomas and degrees: See Multi-level regulations.
Sanctions: In 2019, some schools were closed by the Ministry of Education “since they did not meet the quality standards”.
There are three types of private institutions of tertiary education: universities, specialized higher institutes and colleges. In 2018, two tertiary education institutions were public and 28 were private; private tertiary education institutions accounted for 57% of total enrolment.
The key regulations at this level are the Law n° 27/2013 of the 24/05/2013 Governing the Organisation and Functioning of Higher Education and Law n° 72/03 of 10/09/2013 establishing Higher Education Council and determining its responsibilities, organization and functioning. They can be interpreted in union with the Qualifications Framework for Higher Education (QFHE), the Code of Practice for operating private higher education institutions for Higher Education and the Handbook for Academic Quality Assurance and Enhancement and the Maintenance of Standards in Higher Education.
Registration and approval: Ministerial Order n° 001/MINEDUC/2013 of 15/11/2013 determines the conditions for granting accreditation to a private institution of higher education. The application letter for accreditation must be accompanied by the following documents: an identification of the owner or a certificate of legal personality, a list of full time academic, administrative and technical staff indicating their qualifications, a detailed document describing the name of the institution, head office, land, buildings and movable property, a detailed document on the conditions of admission of students in each programme, an estimated number of expected students and a document indicating the initial annual budget. A private institution granted an operating licence shall undergo an overall assessment of its performance by Higher Education Council (HEC) a year before its level of issuing its first exit awards. The Ministerial Order n° 001/MINEDUC/2013 of 15/11/2013 (Art. 6) also lists the conditions for a foreign institution of higher learning to establish a campus in Rwanda. The accreditation process (setup requirements, review process, schedule for application for accreditation, guideline for recognition, etc.) and the list of academic programmes offered by the private higher learning institutions in Rwanda are available on the Higher Education Council website. For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Licence: The Presidential Order N°51/01 of 13/07/2010 establishing Quality Standards in Higher Learning Institutions (Art 8.6.1) stipulates that the certificate of registration or provisional registration must include the institution’s agreement number, the programmes licenced to be offered, the sites at which registered programmes are to be offered, the date of the last institutional audit and the name and signature of the Minister of Education and Executive Director of the National Council for Higher Education. For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Profit-making: When applying for accreditation of a private higher education institution, applicants must provide proof of their non-profit status. For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Taxes and subsidies: Private financing dominates the higher education sub-sector. For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Quality of teaching and learning
Curriculum or learning standards: Institutions develop curricula and submit them to the competent authority for approval (Law n° 01, 2017, Art. 18). In addition, providers may offer only “award bearing programmes that lead to qualifications registered in, and conforming to, the credit requirements of the Qualification Framework for Higher Education” (Presidential Order n°51/01, 2010, Art. 8.8.5). For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Teaching profession: Institutions of higher education enjoy autonomy in respect of teaching and management of human resources, in accordance with relevant laws (Law n° 01, 2017, Art. 17). An institution must publish at least once a year a brochure for the information of students and the public which contains names and qualifications of all full-time and part-time academic staff employed by the institution (Presidential Order n°51/01, 2010, Art. 8.8.28). In parallel, the Council of an institution appoints, promotes and revokes the teaching staff. The Academic senate determines the guidelines on recruitment of the teaching staff (Law n° 01, 2017, Art. 48). Finally, the terms and conditions of employment of academic staff “must be comparable to those enjoyed by staff of an equivalent grade employed in the public sector of higher education institutions” (Presidential Order n°51/01, 2010, Art. 8.8.34). For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Fee-setting: Higher education institutions must “charge private students fees” to generate sufficient income to enable them to deliver higher education of a quality and standard as required (Presidential Order N°51/01, 2010, Art. 6.4.2). All institutions must submit proof each year that they have a deposit or financial guarantee enabling them to fulfil all obligations concerning the reimbursement of tuition fees to students in the event of the institution's closure (Art. 8.8.10). Finally, an institution must publish at least once a year a brochure that contains information on fees and charges (Art. 8.8.28). For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Admission selection and processes: Requirements for admission to an institution are determined by internal rules and regulations of an institution (Law n° 01, 2017, Art. 60). In addition, the Academic senate determines the guidelines on students' admission (Art. 48). Furthermore, institutions must not exceed the enrollment numbers that the facilities and equipment can reasonably accommodate (Presidential Order N°51/01, 2010, Art. 8.8.21). Finally, an institution must publish at least once a year a brochure that contains admission requirements and procedures (Art. 8.8.28). For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability
Board: Each institution must have a Chancellery, a Council of an institution of higher learning, an Office of the Vice-Chancellor, an Academic senate and a Senior management committee (Law n° 36, 2018, Art. 36).
Reporting requirements: See Multi-level regulations.
Inspection: That private institution of higher education is supervised by an organ determined by its owner, but a government-subsidized institution of higher education is under the supervision of a public organ (Law n° 01, 2017, Art. 15). For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Student assessment: Institutions of higher education have the power to award degrees or certificates. Institutions enjoy autonomy in respect of teaching, and assessment, in accordance with relevant laws (Law n° 01, 2017, Art. 17). The Academic Senate is also responsible to make decisions regarding students performance, promotion or repeating (Art. 48).
Diplomas and degrees: Institutions of higher education have the power to award degrees or certificates (Law n° 01, 2017, Art. 16). Only institutions that have been awarded a provisional or definitive operating agreement by the Minister of Education on the advice of the National Council for Higher Education may deliver award-bearing higher education programmes (Presidential Order N°51/01, 2010, Art. 8.5.1). For more information, see Multi-level regulations.
Sanctions: The HEC will recommend to the Minister of Education the cancellation of registration of an institution if the institution ceases to provide higher education, to meet the criteria of eligibility or to comply with any condition imposed by HEC. An institution may be temporarily closed for failure to comply with provisions of the regulations and standards for higher education, insecurity, or any other special reason. The decision to temporarily close a private institution is made by the Minister and the decision to permanently close an institution is made by an order of the Minister (Law n° 01, 2017, Art. 27). The decision to close an institution is published by the Minister and notified in writing to the owner of the institution, in at least two media based in Rwanda within five days from when the decision was taken (Art. 29). In addition, the Academic senate assesses and monitors academic programmes, research and education of the institution (Art. 48).
3.2 Multi-level regulations
This section presents the regulations for early childhood care and education, primary and secondary education and higher education.
Registration and approval: The applicant must present the educational project, including the objectives, the action plan, the means available, the functioning of the school, etc. The applicant must also sign an agreement with the Ministry (Law n° 36, 2018, Art. 20).
Licence: A ministerial order grants accreditation to a private institution.
Profit-making: The 2003 Organic Law n° 20 (Art. 23) stipulated that the creation of schools should be undertaken without any intention of making commercial profits; however, the current version of the 2018 Law n° 36 does not mention profit-making.
Taxes and subsidies: The funding of any school must be done in accordance with the inspectorate checks. Any person applying for authorization to establish a private school must agree with the national organ in charge of regulation of the institution (Law n° 36, 2018, Art. 20).
Quality of teaching and learning
Curriculum or learning standards: The current version of the 2018 Law n° 36 does not mention curriculum and learning standards in private institutions. Previously, the 2003 Organic Law n° 20 (Art. 36) specified that private establishments must have classrooms and necessary and sufficient equipment. It mentioned that institutions require private institutions to respect the curricula accepted by the Government without preventing any additional subjects. In addition, the institution had to agree not to change the objectives of the school without getting prior authorization from Government.
Teaching profession: The staff of private schools is governed by the Labour Code and employment contracts (Law n° 36, 2018, Art. 24). The 2003 Organic Law n° 20 (Art. 36) indicated that the owners of private institutions pay their teachers and other staff. However, the current version of the 2018 Law n° 36 does not mention teachers’ salaries in private institutions. Many educational stakeholders including for instance the government, churches and non-government organisations are involved regarding in-service teacher training. At the government side, the Rwanda Education Board (REB) is responsible for the in-service training of teachers up to the secondary level of education.
Admission selection and processes: The 2003 Organic Law n° 20 (Art. 36) stipulated that the owners of private schools enrol students, but they must admit students without any discrimination at all. However, the 2018 Law n° 36 does not mention admission selection in private institutions.
Quality assurance, monitoring and accountability
Reporting requirements: The Office of the Ombudsman acts as a link between the citizen and public and private institutions. It aims at preventing and fighting against injustice, corruption and other related offences in public and private administration.
Inspection: The foundation and start-up of any school must be done in accordance with the inspectorate checks whether all basic requirements are met (Law n° 36, 2018, Art. 20).
Diplomas and degrees: The qualification framework of each level of education is determined by an order of the Minister, which also determines the equivalence and authentication of diplomas or certificates issued abroad and those issued in Rwanda (Law n° 36, 2018, Art. 8).
3.3 Supplementary private tutoring
The term ‘‘coaching’’ is used in Rwanda. The government has a laissez-faire approach to private tutoring, which is not regulated by the Rwanda Education Board (REB), but at the school level. The government recognises internal arrangements within schools regarding private tutoring.
The Ministry of Education adopted a National Framework on Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) and Open Educational Resource (OER) in 2018, which includes private online courses.
No information was found.
Financial operation and quality
No information was found.
No information was found.
