School leadership
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
2.2. Selection and working conditions
2.3. Leadership preparation and training
3. Teachers, parents and students
3.1. School management committees and boards
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
1. Terminology
The 2014 Education Act defines a ‘manager’ in relation to a school or college as a “person other than the head teacher or principal, who, on behalf of, or instead of, the proprietor, attends to the maintenance of a school or the employment and supervision of staff”.
The term ‘head teacher’ is used in government policies, standards and regulations, including the 2015 National Education Standards, 2008 Guidelines for the Management of Education Functions Devolved to District Assemblies, and the 2004 National Strategy for Community Participation in Primary School Management.
2. School principals
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
Competency standards and leadership frameworks and guidelines
The 2015 National Education Standards of Primary and Secondary Education, published by the Ministry of Education Science and Technology (MoEST), set leadership and management standards that focus on the roles of the head teacher, School Management Committee, Parent-Teacher Associations, Board of Governors, and senior staff in ensuring that effective teaching and learning take place at the school. Relevant standards for school leadership include 1) school governance (Education Standard 17), 2) school leadership (Education Standard 18) and 3) partnership with parents and the community (Education Standard 19). All standards are developed in accordance with the Constitution of the Republic of Malawi and the 2014 Education Act.
The Standards are presented in the form of minimum requirements for educational provision and practice. The Directorate of Inspection and Advisory Services has a duty under the Education Act to measure compliance with the Standards and reports to the Ministry on the extent to which the Standards are being implemented and on the overall quality of education.
The 2017 National Standards for Teacher Education specify the 18 standards for teacher education in terms of outcomes, process of teacher education and leadership in initial teacher education institutions and are used by principals and staff in teacher training colleges, as well as head teachers, mentors and teachers in teaching practice schools.
The MoEST has additionally developed the Secondary School Management Handbook, with support from the Japan International Cooperation Agency, which defines the roles and responsibilities of the headteacher, deputy headteacher, head of department, form teacher, prefect, class monitor, student, support staff, and parent or guardian.
Roles
Setting expectations/objectives: Education standard No 15 of the 26 National Education Standards sets the vision, goals and values focused on students to acquire knowledge, skills and dispositions to succeed in an ever changing world as well as contributing to the national economic, political and social development of the country. This standard connects with standard 7 on curriculum, standard 8 on high expectations, standard 10 on teacher effectiveness and standard 23 on access, equity and inclusion. The head teacher should take practical action within the improvement planning process to achieve school goals and measure their progress, with the active involvement of the school management committee, parents, students, staff, and the community. Senior managers are responsible for checking how well the school is achieving its vision by measuring and analysing data on retention, completion, and outcomes for students. All schools must have a clearly stated and realistic educational vision which reflects the national purpose for education expressed in the 2014 Education Act.
According to the 2017-21 National Strategy on Inclusive Education, head teachers and school management committees are accountable to ensure that school improvement plans are inclusive.
Developing teaching and learning: According to the 2015 National Education Standards, head teachers plan, coordinate, direct school activities and programs; supervise teaching and learning; interpret and implement government policies; prepare and execute the budget while maintaining the accounts; chair staff and management meetings; allocate responsibilities to staff; conduct teachers and program evaluations; maintain discipline and keep school records and bring students and staff together. They are accountable to the district, school management committee, parents, students, and the community for the quality of education in the school. The head teacher is the overall supervisor of teaching and learning activities in the school, as described in the Secondary School Management Handbook.
Promoting collaboration: Standard 19 of the National Education Standards highlights partnership with parents and the community. The head teacher and senior staff must work collaboratively with teachers and parents to improve the quality of the school and prioritise students’ education, safety, and care. The school must take practical action to ensure that all students have a positive school experience, that they are safe, happy, and learning well. According to the Secondary School Management Handbook, the head teacher is responsible for ensuring good relationships between the school and community.
The 2008 Guidelines for the Management of Education Functions Devolved to District Assemblies additionally emphasise that the head teacher must cooperate with their staff and respect them as fellow members of the profession. The best attitude is one of friendliness, cooperation, and mutual helpfulness.
Supporting staff development: According to the National Education Standard No. 20, Staff Supervision and Development , the head teacher and senior staff must regularly observe teachers , record their observations and provide oral and written feedback to teachers. This process helps the head teacher assess the strengths and shortcomings of each individual teacher and determine the support needed to improve their practice.
The head teacher is specifically responsible for identifying opportunities for staff professional development; seeing to it that every teacher takes part in these activities; compiling a staff professional development plan which should be reflected in the school improvement plan; and supervising lessons, giving constructive feedback, as described in the Secondary School Management Handbook.
Acting in accordance with the ethical principles of the profession: According to the 2008 Guidelines for the Management of Education Functions Devolved to District Assemblies, the head teacher should set a good example in courtesy, kindliness, enthusiasm, orderliness, promptness, hard work, and respect for everybody at school (teachers and students). The head teacher is also expected to be ethical, that is fair and consistent in dealing with students and members of staff.
Others: Additional leadership standards in the 2015 National Education Standards include care and welfare of students, management of buildings and facilities, and financial management. The head teacher is expected to be on school premises for most of the working week.
2.2. Selection and working conditions
Degree requirements and prior teaching experience
Headteachers are appointed based on a successful record of teaching; prior experience of leadership in school or outside; or a university degree. According to Ministry recruitment requirements, headteachers at secondary schools (grade TF) must be serving headteachers, deputy headteachers, or heads of department at grade TG, with a minimum of 4 years of experience at that grade. Headteachers at secondary schools (TG) should be serving heads of department (Grade TH) or senior secondary school teachers (Grade TH) with a minimum of 4 years’ experience at that grade.
The 2014 Education Act outlines the qualifications and requirements for registration for teachers, but not explicitly for headteachers.
Appointment decision
The Ministry of Education appoints headteachers based on a careful assessment of the candidate’s teaching records (as demonstrated by their students’ achievement on the national test) and educational background. In cases where vacant posts are less than the number of qualifying candidates, headteachers are appointed based on the civil service model of recruitment (open competition in the Teaching Service Commission) put in place by the Ministry of Education based on merit, where positions are advertised so that qualified candidates can compete for them. Applications are submitted to the Teaching Service Commission, and advertised by the Ministry of Education.
Employment equity measures
The 2015 National Gender Policy aims for women and girls to fully and equally participate in decision-making positions at all levels, and reduce gender disparities between men and women in all spheres of education.
Working conditions
Teachers and head teachers are civil servants, appointed on permanent and pensionable terms, based on fixed salary scales. The Teaching Service Commission oversees the compensation of teachers and head teachers. The wage structure of the Civil Service Commission governs all civil servants, with the Teaching Service Commission using the same wage structure as the Civil Service Commission.
The Malawi Secondary School Head Teachers Association is a legally established professional body that brings together all head teachers of public secondary schools in Malawi. The Association collaborates and establishes working partnerships and networks with Government Ministries, Departments, and Agencies.
2.3. Leadership preparation and training
Pre-service training
To meet the “effective practice” standard as per the 2015 National Education Standards, a school head teacher and senior staff must have received training relevant to their responsibilities. Several attempts have been made throughout the years, with the support of development partners, to formally prepare head teachers for their roles. In 2011 with the support of the United States Agency for International Development, the Ministry of Education published the National Strategy for Teacher Education and Development Implementation Strategy, to develop a headship certificate for head teachers.
Induction and in-service training
The in-service training of head teachers is included as part of the objectives of several national policies and strategies. The 2016 National Education Policy provided continuous professional development to all instructional leaders (including head teachers). Similarly, the 2020-30 National Education Sector Investment Plan supports training head teachers on leadership and management skills to improve leadership and management of the education system at all levels. The capacity-building training of head teachers is additionally highlighted in the 2004 National Strategy for Community Participation in Primary School Management.
In 2023, the Ministry of Education launched a training program to empower school leadership with new management skills, aimed at improving school administration affairs. The School Leadership Programme, which is one of the components of the Malawi Education Programme, aims to train 10,200 school leaders for primary schools in Malawi. The program targets head teachers, deputy head teachers, Primary Education Advisors, and female Sectional heads, with a focus on resource management and school administration skills.
3. Teachers, parents and students
3.1. School management committees and boards
The management of a school involves the head teacher, the School Management Committee (SMC), the Parent and Teachers Association (PTA), and the school community.
The composition and roles of the School Management Committee (SMC) are outlined in the 2014 Education Act, 2008 Guidelines for the Management of Education Functions Devolved to District Assemblies, 2004 National Strategy for Community Participation in Primary School Management, and 2015 National Education Standards.
The 2014 Education Act provides for the establishment of school management committees in all public primary and assisted primary schools (Article 21) by ensuring the community served by the school is represented, as well as the local government authority and, where applicable, the school proprietor. The Board of Governors oversees the management of public secondary schools and colleges and must be representative of the school community as well (Article 25).
The SMC is composed of nine members of the school community including the District Education Manager or her/his representative; a nominee by the proprietor of the school; an appointee by the Local Education Authority; four elected members whose children attend the school; and two members from the community interested in education co-opted by parents.
Its overall role is to oversee the management of resources and those working at the primary school in collaboration with school staff, and the community. As specifically outlined in the 2014 Education Act and 2004 National Strategy for Community Participation in Primary School Management, the SMC is responsible for teacher observation, teachers and students’ attendance and punctuality; advising the school proprietor of the appointment and dismissal of any teaching and non-teaching staff; ensuring that recommendations made by the Ministry of Education are implemented; advising the proprietor whether the conduct of the school is in accordance with the wishes of the local community; maintaining and providing school furniture and equipment; paying teacher salaries; assisting in admission procedures; checking, inspecting and maintaining the school with the help of other community members; monitoring the quality of learning at the school; and overseeing the development of the School Action Plan (Article 23).
According to the 2004 National Strategy for Community Participation in Primary School Management, women should make up at least 50% of the membership, and hold at least 30% of leadership positions in School Management Committees. This also means that at least one of the three main office holders should be female (chairperson, treasurer, or secretary). Similarly, for Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs), at least 30% of office holders should be women. The head teacher assumes the role of secretary to the PTA. In addition, the chair of the PTA must be different from the chair of the School Management Committee.
3.2. Middle leaders
As per the 2015 National Education Standards and 2004 National Strategy for Community Participation in Primary School Management ‘senior school staff’ are the three most senior teachers in school management. The Secondary School Management Handbook further defines the roles of heads of department, who, as head of the curriculum, oversee and supervise proper implementation of the curriculum.
3.3. Parents
According to the Secondary School Management Handbook, parents and community members are an integral part of the school management system.
The Parent-Teacher Association comprises all parents, teachers, and community leaders who share a common interest in education and come together to discuss the needs of their primary school. The PTA represents the whole community. The PTA is composed of ten members: the chairperson, the treasurer and the Secretary, the vice chair and the vice secretary, and five members. The head teacher assumes the role of secretary to the PTA.
According to the 2004 National Strategy for Community Participation in Primary School Management, PTAs are not a legal entity but they are central to ongoing community participation in primary school management.
The main role of the PTA is to elect and hold accountable the School Management Committee on issues of relevance to their primary school, and to mobilise the community to assist in the implementation of plans developed for the primary school. The PTA holds regular meetings with parents to discuss disciplinary matters, acts as a bridge between the school and parents, addresses learners and teachers in terms of discipline, checks if the policies are being followed, monitors student academic performance, and helps mobilise resources, as described in the Secondary School Management Handbook.
3.4. Students
The establishment of student councils is not required by law. However, the 2020 Constitution of the Malawi Secondary School Headteachers Association aims to foster youth leadership through the establishment of student councils in all public secondary schools to strengthen school governance. The Secondary School Management Handbook additionally defines the roles of student prefects, who act as a bridge between the school administration and fellow students.
UNICEF has also supported the development of the Positive Discipline Manual Handbook for the Establishment of Student Councils and a Child Protection Manual in primary education.
4. Governance
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
Head teachers support school management committees in formulating school budgets, as stated in the 2015 National Education Standards and 2004 National Strategy for Community Participation in Primary School Management. School management committees are primarily in control of school funds and drafting the budgets.
While private schools make their own decisions on the appointment and dismissal of teachers, public schools need approval from the Ministry. District authorities may not take any measure on teacher dismissal if not approved by the Ministry.
According to the 2014 Education Act, the Ministry of Education is in control of the design and development of the national curriculum, including the instruction and prescribed syllabus.
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
According to the 2014 Education Act, inspectors may require any manager or principal to produce any book, document or other article or to furnish any information relating to the administration or management of teaching or activities in the school or college during a school inspection (Article 53).
The 2004 National Strategy for Community Participation in Primary School Management highlights that all primary school management activities are evaluated, and the results are shared and used in both present and future initiatives by all interested stakeholders. The strategy emphasises that evaluation should be incorporated into all primary school management activities.
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
The head teacher is responsible for conducting teacher evaluation as set in their job description, 2015 National Education Standards for Primary and Secondary Education , and Secondary School Management Handbook. All staff must undergo regular documented evaluations of their work which focus on strengths, areas for improvement and action to improve their skills. The head teacher is specifically responsible for appraising staff members every term (recording the results for the future), referencing reports in case of promotions, rewarding good staff performance, and placing staff in positions relevant to their abilities and performance.
This profile was reviewed by Nathalis Wamba (Professor, City University of New York - Queens College) and Osman Ferda Beytekin (Dean of the Faculty of Education, Ege University).
