School leadership

1. Terminology

2. School principals

2.1. Leadership standards and roles

2.2. Selection and working conditions

2.3. Leadership preparation and training

3. Teachers, parents and students

3.1. School management committees and boards

3.2. Middle leaders

3.3. Parents

3.4. Students

4. Governance

4.1. Autonomy of school leaders

4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders

4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders

1. Terminology

At the federal level, the 1949 Basic Law (Grundgesetz), amended in 2022, does not mention terms referring to the head of schools.

At the state (Länder) level, the following table provides terminologies utilized to refer to school leaders. However, legislative frameworks at the state level do not define terminologies utilized to refer to school leaders.

States	Laws	Terms
Baden-Württemberg	1990 Law for Independent Schools (Privatschulgesetz - PSchG), amended in 2023	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter)
Berlin	2004 School Law (Schulgesetz - SchulG), amended in 2023	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter)
Bavaria	2000 Law on Education and Training (BayEUG) , amended in 2023	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter)
Brandenburg	2002 Law on Schools (Brandenburgisches Schulgesetz - BbgSchulG), amended in 2024	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter)
Brandenburg	2004 Second law implementing the eighth book of the Social Code - child and youth welfare (Kindertagesstättengesetz - KitaG), amended in 2024	Education professionals (pädagogischen Fachkräften)
Bremen	2000 Law on the Support of Children in Day Facilities and Day Care (Bremisches Tageseinrichtungs- und Kindertagespflegegesetz - BremKTG), amended in 2019	Social education specialist (sozialpädagogischer Fachkräfte)
Hamburg	2004 Childcare Act (KibeG), amended in 2022	Education pedagogical specialist staff (pädagogische Fachpersonal)
Hamburg	1997 School Act (HmbSG), amended in 2024	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter) Deputy school principal (stellvertretende Schulleiterin oder der stellvertretende Schulleiter)
Hessen	2006 Child and Youth Welfare Code (HKJGB), amended in 2023	Pedagogical specialist (pädagogischer Fachkräfte)
Hessen	2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter) Deputy school principal (stellvertretende Schulleiterin oder der stellvertretende Schulleiter)
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern	2020 Ordinance on the content and implementation of early childhood education (Frühkindliche Bildungsverordnung - FrühKiBiVO M-V)	Pedagogical specialist (pädagogischer Fachkräfte)
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern	The 2010 School Act (Schulgesetz - SchulG M-V), amended in 2023	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter)
Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony)	2021 Law on Day Care Centers and Child Day Care (NKiTaG)	Pedagogical specialist (pädagogischer Fachkräfte)
Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony)	1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter)
Nordrhein-Westfalen (North Rhine-Westphalia)	2005 School Law (Schulgesetz), amended in 2022	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter)
Rheinland-Pfalz (Rhineland-Palatinate)	2008 School regulations for public primary schools (Schulordnung für die öffentlichen Grundschulen), amended in 2019	Pedagogical specialist (pädagogischer Fachkräfte)
Rheinland-Pfalz (Rhineland-Palatinate)	2009 School regulations for public secondary schools (Übergreifende Schulordnung), amended in 2021	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter)
Saarland	2022 Education, Upbringing, and Care Act (SBEBG)	Pedagogical specialist (pädagogischer Fachkräfte)
Saarland	1966 Compulsory Schooling Law (Schulpflichtgesetz), amended in 2021	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter)
Sachsen (Saxony)	2009 Law on Child Daycare, amended in 2024	Pedagogical specialist (pädagogischer Fachkräfte)
	2018 School Law (Sächsisches Schulgesetz), amended in 2023	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter)
		Deputy school principal (stellvertretende Schulleiterin oder der stellvertretende Schulleiter)
Sachsen-Anhalt (Saxony-Anhalt)	2003 Law for the promotion and care of children in daycare centers and daycare (Kinderförderungsgesetz (KiFöG)), amended in 2023	Education pedagogical specialist staff (pädagogische Fachpersonal)
Sachsen-Anhalt (Saxony-Anhalt)	2018 School Law (Schulgesetz)	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter)
Schleswig-Holstein	2019 Child Daycare Act (Kindertagesförderungsgesetz (KiTaG)), amended in 2024	Pedagogical specialist (pädagogischer Fachkräfte)
Schleswig-Holstein	2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter)
Thüringen (Thuringia)	2017 Kindergarten Act (Kindergartengesetz (ThürKigaG)), amended in 2023	Pedagogical specialist (pädagogischer Fachkräfte)
Thüringen (Thuringia)	2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021	School principal (Schulleiterin/Schulleiter)

2. School principals

2.1. Leadership standards and roles

Competency standards and leadership frameworks and guidelines

There is no separate document for standardized framework for leadership competencies and defined roles for school principals. National legislative and policy frameworks define the roles and responsibilities of school leaders as mentioned below.

Roles

Setting expectations/objectives: The table below outlines the essential practices of school principals as specified in various states' official documents. These practices focus on developing a school vision, setting performance expectations, and utilizing data to inform stakeholders and guide decision-making processes.

State	Official document	Roles and responsibilities mentioned
Bavaria	2000 Law on Education and Training (BayEUG), amended in 2023	School principal is responsible for ensuring the school's smooth functioning, overseeing administrative tasks
Berlin	2004 School Law (Schulgesetz - SchulG), amended in 2023	School principal is responsible for overall management of the school
Brandenburg	2004 Second law implementing the eighth book of the Social Code - child and youth welfare (Kindertagesstättengesetz - KitaG), amended in 2024	Pedagogical specialist is responsible for overall management of the early education and care (ECCE) centre
Hessen	2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023	School principals are responsible for ensuring that their schools fulfil their educational and instructional mandates
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern	2010 School Act (Schulgesetz - SchulG M-V), amended in 2023	Strategic planning and continuous improvement are critical responsibilities of school principals. They are involved in developing long-term plans that align with the school's mission and goals. Principals use data and feedback from assessments to inform school improvement plans and make necessary adjustments to enhance educational outcomes
Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony)	1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023	School principals are responsible for ensuring that the school's activities align with the educational goals and legal standards set by the state
North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW)	2005 School Law	School principals are responsible for fulfilling its educational mission. Furthermore, they are responsible for ensuring all preparations for the start of the new school year are completed. They may issue instructions to all school employees to fulfil these tasks
Schleswig-Holstein	2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024	School principals are responsible for fulfilling the school's educational mission and organizing and managing the school according to legal and administrative regulations

Developing teaching and learning: The table below highlights the key practices of school principals related to the development of teaching, as explicitly mentioned in some states' official documents:

State	Official document	Roles and responsibilities mentioned
Bavaria	2000 Law on Education and Training (BayEUG), amended in 2023	School principals are responsible for ensuring students receive quality education
Berlin	2004 School Law (Schulgesetz - SchulG), amended in 2023	School principals are responsible for enhancing the professional development of teachers and staff while ensuring compliance with training requirements. They are responsible for supporting teacher trainees within the school and regularly assessing the training's quality. Additionally, the school principal is obligated to monitor the effectiveness of teaching and educational practices, provide guidance to teachers and pedagogical staff, and intervene when there are breaches of legal or administrative regulations, directives from supervisory authorities or school committees, or deficiencies in educational quality
Hessen	2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023	School principals are responsible for developing timetables, supervision schedules, substitution plans, and organizing classes and learning groups
North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW)	2005 School Law	School principals are responsible for ensuring uninterrupted teaching. Furthermore, it is the duty of school principals to encourage school-age children who do not fulfil their compulsory schooling to attend school regularly.
Rhineland-Palatinate	2008 School regulations for public primary schools (Schulordnung für die öffentlichen Grundschulen), amended in 2019	School principals are responsible for reporting to the school authority and the health authority about the number of registered school-age children and non-school-age children. They are also responsible for monitoring school attendance.
Saxony	2018 School Law (Sächsisches Schulgesetz), amended in 2023	School principals are responsible for distributing teaching assignments as well as setting up the school timetable. Furthermore, they are also responsible for compliance with the curricula and the generally applicable principles for grading.

Promoting collaboration: The table below highlights the key practices of school principals related to building relationships with families, the community and other education stakeholders in the development of teaching, as explicitly mentioned in some states' official documents:

State	Official document	Roles and responsibilities mentioned
Berlin	2004 School Law (Schulgesetz - SchulG), amended in 2023	School principals are responsible for fostering collaboration among teachers, school staff, students, legal guardians, and school authorities to enhance teaching and educational practices. Additionally, they are tasked with establishing partnerships with academic institutions, vocational training bodies, employment administrations, and child and youth welfare institutions, as well as social welfare providers and advisory centers, ensuring the school remains connected with its social and cultural surroundings.
Hamburg	1997 School Act (HmbSG), amended in 2024	School principals are responsible for establishing cooperation with teachers, parents, students and the state-competent authority to ensure the fulfilment of the education mandate in each state school.
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern	2010 School Act (Schulgesetz - SchulG M-V), amended in 2023	School principals are responsible for creating a positive school culture that promotes student well-being, engagement, and academic success. This includes implementing programs and activities that support student development and foster community within the school. Principals engage with parents and the broader community to build strong partnerships that support the school's educational mission. They communicate regularly with stakeholders to ensure transparency and collaborative decision-making.
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern	2020 Ordinance on the content and implementation of early childhood education (Frühkindliche Bildungsverordnung - FrühKiBiVO M-V)	Pedagogical specialists are obliged to advise parents on all important matters relating to early childhood education, especially the individual support of their child. This also includes providing parents with information and advice on their child's transition from kindergarten to school.
North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW)	2005 School Law	School principals are responsible for ensuring cooperation with the school board and school partners.
Schleswig-Holstein	2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024	School principals are responsible for cooperating with the school supervisory authority, the school authority and the school's partners. They are required to work with parents and youth and social welfare committees.
Thuringia	2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021	School principals are responsible for establishing close cooperation with the school authorities.

Supporting staff development: The table below highlights the key practices of school principals related to supporting staff development, as explicitly mentioned in some states' official documents:

State	Official document	Roles and responsibilities mentioned
Bavaria	2000 Law on Education and Training (BayEUG), amended in 2023	School principals are responsible for issuing the directives to teachers, administrative personnel, and support staff. Furthermore, the school principal may delegate specific instructional responsibilities to teachers, aligning with legal and administrative guidelines.
Hamburg	1997 School Act (HmbSG), amended in 2024	School principals are responsible for promoting the training of the teaching staff and other school staff. Furthermore, they are responsible for advising teachers on their training needs and ensuring their cooperation.
Hessen	2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023	School principals are required to promote interdisciplinary and cross-curricular learning among teachers, facilitate their professional development, and ensure new teachers receive specific support.
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern	2010 School Act (Schulgesetz - SchulG M-V), amended in 2023	School principals support teachers in their professional development by providing resources, organizing training sessions, and fostering a culture of continuous improvement.
Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony)	1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023	School principals are responsible for guiding the whole school staff (teaching and non-teaching).
North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW)	2005 School Law	School principals are responsible for ensuring school personnel management and development.

Saxony-Anhalt	2018 School Law (Schulgesetz)	School principals are responsible for providing feedback to teaching staff, pedagogical employees, and support staff.
Saxony	2018 School Law (Sächsisches Schulgesetz), amended in 2023	School principals are responsible for personnel development of school teachers. Furthermore, the school principal is responsible for giving instructions to the school staff and supervising the employees working at school.
Schleswig-Holstein	2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024	School principals are responsible for personnel management and development. They can instruct their deputies and other teachers to carry out parts of their tasks on their behalf.
Thuringia	2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021	School principals are responsible for fostering teachers' professional development needs and ensuring they meet their training obligations.

Acting in accordance with the ethical principles of the profession: The table below highlights the key practices of school principals related to integrity, respect, trust, fairness, transparency and honesty, as explicitly mentioned in some states' official documents:

State

Official document

Roles and responsibilities mentioned

Berlin

2004 School Law (Schulgesetz - SchulG), amended in 2023

School principals are responsible for working towards a participatory, non-discriminatory and democratic school culture.

Hamburg

1997 School Act (HmbSG), amended in 2024

School principals are required to inform themselves about the proper conduct of educational and teaching work and, where necessary, to ensure this by appropriate measures.

Others: The table below highlights other important practices of school principals related to school management and administration, as explicitly mentioned in some states' official documents

State	Official document	Roles and responsibilities mentioned
Bavaria	2000 Law on Education and Training (BayEUG), amended in 2023	School principals are responsible for representing their schools in external events.
Hamburg	1997 School Act (HmbSG), amended in 2024	School principals are responsible for ensuring the public availability of key documents and information. This includes the target and performance agreements, the assessment of target achievement, the outcomes of school inspections, any modifications to ongoing pilot programs, and the statement on budgetary resource utilization.
Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony)	1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023	School principals are responsible for representing the school in external events.
North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW)	2005 School Law	School principals are responsible for representing their schools in external events. Furthermore, they are responsible for accident prevention, effective first aid, and workplace health and safety.
Saxony-Anhalt	2018 School Law (Schulgesetz)	School principal are responsible for representing their schools in external events.
Saxony	2018 School Law (Sächsisches Schulgesetz), amended in 2023	School principals are responsible for supervising the maintenance of facilities and buildings.
Schleswig-Holstein	2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024	School principals are responsible for representing their schools in external events.
Thuringia	2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021	School principals are responsible for supervising the maintenance of school premises (Hausrecht) and representing the school externally.

2.2. Selection and working conditions

Degree requirements and prior teaching experience

The criteria for appointment as a school principal vary among states. Furthermore, the norm is to demand qualifications akin to those of teachers at the respective educational level, inclusive of teaching certification and substantial teaching and managerial background, with divergent requirements for teaching qualifications across different states. Some states also explicitly mention the criteria for appointment as a pedagogical specialist (manager) of the early childhood care and education (ECCE) centre.

For example, in the state of Berlin, according to the 2004 School Law (Schulgesetz - SchulG), amended in 2023, the appointment of a school principal necessitates a comprehensive demonstration of capabilities extending beyond basic teaching qualifications. Essential competencies include adeptness in school management, organizational prowess, pedagogical acumen, proficiency in fostering collaboration and resolving conflicts, and a commitment to liaising with educational and non-educational entities, alongside a propensity for innovation and school advancement, substantiated through relevant qualifications. Candidates are expected to showcase their prowess gained from experiences in educational settings, administrative roles, or business environments.

In the state of Hamburg, according to the 1997 School Act (HmbSG), amended in 2024, the responsible authority will only appoint a school principal if the candidate possesses knowledge and skills that extend beyond standard teaching training and are essential for effective school management. These skills include leadership, teamwork, conflict resolution, innovation, organizational abilities, and a commitment to collaborating with school-related and external committees. Additionally, the candidate must be capable of addressing educational, social, and socio-political issues. Suitability for the position can also be demonstrated through qualification measures or special selection procedures. Ideally, applicants should have a proven track record in another school, educational institution, administrative role, or business and should not be affiliated with the school where they are applying for the position.

In the state of Hessen, in early childhood and care education (ECCE), according to the 2006 Child and Youth Welfare Code (HKJGB), amended in 2023, pedagogical specialists responsible for managing ECCE centres must hold specific qualifications. These include recognized state certifications such as educators, curative educators, social pedagogues, and social workers. Additionally, those with diplomas or bachelor's degrees in early childhood or general pedagogy, social care, or social work are eligible. Further, individuals with equivalent qualifications from other countries recognized by the relevant educational authorities may also serve as pedagogical specialists.

In schools, according to the 2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023, school principals are required to possess qualifications demonstrating their ability to responsibly manage leadership roles, including competencies in personnel, instructional, organizational, and quality development. These qualifications typically involve comprehensive educational training and relevant professional experience. Specifically, principals must be capable of overseeing the systematic development of school quality, implementing and updating school programs, and ensuring compliance with educational standards.

In the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, according to the 2010 School Act (Schulgesetz - SchulG M-V), amended in 2023, school principals are required to have a high level of educational and professional qualifications. They must possess a degree from a higher education institution, typically in education or a related discipline. Additionally, candidates must have completed a second state examination or an equivalent qualification certifying their competence in educational administration. Relevant teaching experience is a crucial prerequisite, as it equips the candidates with practical insights and a deep understanding of pedagogical processes. Furthermore, critical criteria include leadership abilities, decision-making skills, and effective communication. Candidates must demonstrate a deep understanding of pedagogical methods, school management, and the ability to foster a positive school culture.

In the state of Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony), in early childhood and care education (ECCE) centres, according to the 2021 Law on Day Care Centers and Child Day Care (NKiTaG), pedagogical specialists (also managers of the centres) must have relevant professional experience of at least two years. They are required to have participated in training specifically oriented towards managerial duties. If this training has not been completed at the time of the permit issuance, it must be completed within one year after the permit is grantedIn smaller daycare centres, deviations from the standard requirements can be made, such as allowing a childcare worker to regularly lead the centre alongside a suitable person, or allowing the childcare worker to take on managerial responsibilities under certain conditions.

In schools, according to the 1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023, school principals are expected to possess qualifications that demonstrate academic and pedagogical proficiency. The essential qualifications include a thorough educational background equivalent to teaching staff in public schools, validated through appropriate examinations. Additionally, candidates may prove their suitability through equivalent professional achievements that display their academic and pedagogical capabilities.

In the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), according to the 2005 School Law, school principals are teachers. The appointment of a principal in schools, except for special needs schools, is subject to specific qualifications. Firstly, candidates must either be qualified to teach at one of the school levels within the relevant school system or possess qualifications to teach a particular type of school, allowing them to instruct in grades corresponding to that system. In special needs schools, eligibility extends to those qualified to teach special needs education or at special needs schools. Additionally, clinical schools require individuals to meet the criteria of either category one or two. Demonstrating knowledge and skills essential for school management is imperative. This includes proficiency in leadership, teamwork, and conflict resolution, as well as the ability to organize and advance the school's development. Pedagogical assessment of teaching and education, along with fostering close collaboration with the school authority and engaging with both school and extracurricular partners, are also fundamental requirements.

In the state of Saarland, in early childhood care and education centres (ECCE), according to the 2022 Education, Upbringing, and Care Act (SBEBG), for leadership roles, pedagogical specialists are required to have at least a social science degree from a university of applied sciences. Alternatively, individuals with qualifications at level 6 of the German Qualifications Framework, such as a Bachelor Professional in Social Work, alongside state recognition, are eligible. Additionally, at least three years of relevant professional experience is mandated for these positions. Pedagogical specialists may also include individuals with specific French professional qualifications relevant to nursery and kindergarten roles. These qualifications include the Certificat d’aptitude professionnelle Petite Enfance, Monitrice and Moniteur, Éducatrice and Éducateur, Éducatrice de Jeunes Enfants and Éducateur de Jeunes Enfants, and Éducatrice Spécialisée and Éducateur Spécialisé. Moreover, non-academic professionals can be recognized as specialists by the State Youth Welfare Office and the Ministry of Education and Culture upon application, provided they meet specific qualification requirements. This inclusion aims to foster multi-professional teams that can better address the diverse needs of children and their families.

In the state of Saxony-Anhalt, according to the 2003 Law for the promotion and care of children in daycare centers and daycare (Kinderförderungsgesetz (KiFöG)), amended in 2023, education pedagogical specialists/managers of ECCE centres are state-recognized teachers and state-certified specialists. Additionally, individuals with university degrees at level 6 or higher in pedagogy, mainly focusing on early or childhood education and social work and related fields, are considered eligible for education pedagogical specialist/manager of ECCE centres. Furthermore, qualifications following specific regulations, such as those governing completed training in educator professions, are considered, with attention to any restrictions regarding age group specialization. Pedagogical and technical college qualifications also contribute to suitability, emphasizing practical training in educational settings. Moreover, recognition of equivalence under the 2014 Professional Qualification Determination Act (amended in 2021) further validates individuals' qualifications in alignment with the criteria above, ensuring a comprehensive approach to identifying competent educational professionals.

Furthermore, in schools, according to the 2018 School Law (Schulgesetz), to qualify for the school principal position, candidates must demonstrate successful teaching experience, usually at least 3 years. The law mandates that school principals must have proven their teaching competency and management capabilities, ensuring they are well-prepared to assume the diverse responsibilities of school leadership.

In the state of Saxony, according to the 2018 School Law (Sächsisches Schulgesetz), amended in 2023, principals and deputy school principals are civil servants and teachers. For those not holding civil servant status, their roles are specified in their employment contracts.

In the state of Schleswig-Holstein, in early childhood education and care (ECCE) centres, according to the 2019 Child Daycare Act (Kindertagesförderungsgesetz (KiTaG)), amended in 2024, pedagogical specialists (managers) of ECCE centres are required to be graduates of bachelor's programs in early childhood education or social pedagogy or possess equivalent or higher-level degrees. Additionally, they can be state-certified teachers, state-certified special education teachers, or state-certified education nurses.

In schools, according to the 2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024, qualifications to become school principals include teaching experience, experience gained through school administration, training and further education, or a managerial position in the foreign school service.

In the state of Thuringia, in early childhood education and care (ECCE) centres, according to the 2017 Kindergarten Act (Kindergartengesetz (ThürKigaG)), amended in 2023, pedagogical specialists (managers) are required to hold specific state-recognized qualifications. These include roles such as state-recognized teachers, childhood pedagogues, special education teachers, and education nurses. Additionally, professionals with degrees in social pedagogy, interdisciplinary early support, education, educational science, social sciences with a focus on early childhood, primary education, and other relevant bachelor's, master's, or magister programs are also eligible, provided they demonstrate the necessary methodological and didactic skills. The ministry retains the discretion to recognize other individuals with equivalent qualifications, ensuring a comprehensive and flexible approach to staffing in daycare centres.

In schools, according to the 2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021, a school principal must possess a teaching qualification. The Ministry of Education can grant exceptions to this requirement if deemed necessary.

Appointment decision

Every state in Germany has different procedures for hiring school principals.

In the state of Berlin, according to the 2004 School Law (Schulgesetz - SchulG), amended in 2023, appointing school principals involves critical steps to ensure transparency and suitability. The school supervisory authority advertises vacancies, tailoring the requirements profile to the school's attributes with a three-week notice. The authority proposes suitable candidates for the school conference, which conducts hearings within a month. The conference then submits its proposal to the authority, with decisions made by majority vote. If consensus isn't reached, the authority selects the school principal, though any deviation from the conference's proposal requires justification. Exceptions apply when changing a teacher's position, requiring consultation with relevant authorities before finalizing the appointment.

In the state of Hamburg, according to the 1997 School Act (HmbSG), amended in 2024, there is a public tender for every school principal position. The appointment process for a school principal involves several steps to ensure a comprehensive evaluation. There is a selection committee comprising of already appointed school principals, a state government authority, and members (parents, students and teachers) chosen by the school conference. Initially, the teachers' conference, parents' council, and student council members aged fourteen and older are given three weeks to provide feedback on the selection committee's proposal, with the option to interview the candidate. The responsible authority considers these opinions and selects the most suitable candidate, appointing them as principals for a probationary period of twelve months, which can be shortened if deemed appropriate. If an extension beyond twelve months is necessary, it must be specifically justified. Upon completion of the probationary period and following consultation with the teachers' conference and school conference (or school board in the case of vocational schools), the authority will formally appoint the candidate as the principal, provided they have demonstrated satisfactory performance.

In the state of Hessen, according to the 2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023, the selection of school principals follows a structured procedure. Vacant principal positions are generally advertised with a specified application deadline. The responsible school supervisory authority allows the school carrier to comment on the candidates, setting a reasonable deadline for this purpose. Initially, principals are provisionally appointed, and the final appointment is made after consulting the school conference. The school supervisory authority decides if an agreement on the final appointment is not reached within three months.

In the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, according to the 2010 School Act (Schulgesetz - SchulG M-V), amended in 2023, the position of a school principal is typically advertised as soon as it becomes apparent that the position will be vacant. Once applications are received, the selection process involves several key stakeholders. The primary responsibility for the selection lies with the school authorities, who conduct the initial screening and assessment of the candidates based on their qualifications and experience. Following this, the school conference plays a significant role in the selection process. The school conference, which includes representatives of teachers, parents, and students, as well as a representative of the school authority, must be consulted and provide their input on the selection. In addition to the input from the school conference, the school authority must also coordinate with the school sponsor (Schulträger).

In the state of Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony), according to the 1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023, the state is responsible for advertising the positions and ensuring transparency and broad accessibility to potential candidates. School authorities and sponsors are kept informed about the applications and can propose candidates. If the school authority does not agree with the proposals or if no proposals are made, it must engage in discussions with the school and the school sponsor before making a decision. If no agreement is reached within eight weeks, the school authority has the final decision-making power. Additionally, internal promotions within the school are generally discouraged unless there are compelling reasons to do so, emphasizing the importance of external recruitment to bring in fresh perspectives and experiences

In the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), according to the 2005 School Law, appointing a school principal involves collaboration between the higher school supervisory authority, the school conference, and the school authority. Initially, the supervisory authority advertises the position, considers the requirements profile, and assesses received applications. Applicants meeting the criteria may be invited for interviews by the school conference and school authority. Within eight weeks, both entities can submit proposals to the supervisory authority, supported by justifications, with the possibility of extension in warranted cases. Applicants contesting for the position cannot participate in the school conference. Ultimately, the supervisory authority makes the selection, considering suggestions from the school conference and authority, and communicates its decision and rationale to both parties. Additionally, in urgent circumstances, the supervisory authority may directly appoint a head teacher, allowing the school authority an opportunity to provide input within a specified timeframe.

In the state of Saxony-Anhalt, according to the 2018 School Law (Schulgesetz), the positions for school principals are publicly advertised by the state, following civil service regulations. The school authority proposes two suitable candidates for the school conference, selecting the principal from these candidates. The school authority formalizes the appointment according to civil service regulations

In the state of Saxony, according to the 2018 School Law (Sächsisches Schulgesetz), amended in 2023, for those not holding civil servant status, their roles are specified in their employment contracts. The responsibility for appointing these positions varies: the State Ministry for the Environment and Agriculture handles agricultural colleges, the technical schools' authorities in coordination with the same ministry manage technical schools, medical vocational schools fall under the respective school authorities, and the highest school supervisory authority oversees all other schools. After consulting the school conference and coordinating with the school authority, appointments are made with additional input from the Sorbian School Association for Sorbian Schools following the 1999 Saxony Sorbian Law (amended in 2022). Before appointment, all applications are reviewed by the school authority, which can propose candidates within four weeks. Preference is given to candidates not currently employed by the school if their qualifications are equal. If consensus is not achieved within six weeks, the school supervisory authority makes the final decision, potentially after an oral hearing requested by the highest school supervisory authority or the school authority.

In the state of Schleswig-Holstein, according to the 2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024, the selection of school principals involves a rigorous process to ensure that the most suitable candidates are chosen. The positions are publicly advertised, and the Ministry of Education shortlists up to four candidates based on the applications received. Both male and female candidates are considered equally. A selection committee consisting of representatives from the school authority, teachers, parents, and students in higher education institutions conducts the election. This committee must ensure that at least 40% of its members are women. The candidate receiving more than half of the legal votes is recommended to the Ministry for appointment. A runoff is held between the top two candidates if no candidate achieves this majority.

In the state of Thuringia, according to the 2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021, the selection of school principals is a collaborative process involving several stakeholders. The Ministry of Education, in consultation with the school authority and after considering the opinion of the school conference, appoints or designates the principal. The school conference provides its opinion after interviewing the candidates. In some cases, the job position may be filled without a prior public announcement if a suitable candidate is available from within the existing administrative structure.

Furthermore, the Ministry of Education, in consultation with the relevant school authority, holds the authority to dismiss a school principal. The dismissal can be initiated for reasons such as severe breaches of duty or misconduct that undermine the proper functioning of the school. Additionally, before a dismissal decision is finalized, the principal has the right to be heard and present their case.

Employment equity measures

Official documents do not explicitly include measures to address the under-representation of minority groups in school principal positions.

However, in the state of Schleswig-Holstein, the 2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024, emphasizes the equal consideration of male and female candidates applying for school principal positions.

Working conditions

In general, the salaries of school principals correlate with the student population size. However, certain factors such as student demographics, unique pedagogical approaches, or the institution's broader significance may warrant deviations from this principle. Typically, schools with over 360 students adhere to specific salary groups, as detailed in the following table:

School principal of grundschulen	A13, A14, A14 plus allowance, A15
School principal of hauptschulen	A13, A14 plus allowance, A15
School principal of realschulen	A14 plus allowance, A15 plus allowance
School principal of gymnasien	A15 plus allowance, A16
School principal of vocational schools	A15 plus allowance, A16

The actual salary varies in each state. Furthermore, according to the 2022 Joint Eurydice-OECD data collection on salaries of teachers and school heads, family allowance of school principals varies according to the salary group and the family circumstances of the civil servant. The family allowance also varies across the Länder. Furthermore, general post allowance for 'studienräte' in salary group A13. A fixed amount that varies between the Länder. The general post allowance may not exceed 75% of the difference between the final base salary of the salary group the public servant is in and the final base salary of the next higher salary group.

In the state of Berlin, according to the 2004 School Law (Schulgesetz - SchulG), amended in 2023, a fine can be imposed on anyone who works as the school principal, even if they are prohibited from doing so.

In the state of Bremen, according to the 2000 Law on the Support of Children in Day Facilities and Day Care (Bremisches Tageseinrichtungs- und Kindertagespflegegesetz - BremKTG), amended in 2019, in kindergartens and after-school care centers, a social education specialist can only oversee at most 20 children concurrently. Similarly, in environments such as nurseries and small children's groups, a social education specialist and an educational/nursing specialist should typically oversee at most eight children simultaneously.

In the state of Hamburg, according to the 1997 School Act (HmbSG), amended in 2024, the school principal’s salary is determined by public service pay regulations, considering their responsibilities and the size of the school.

In the state of Hessen, according to the 2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023, The salary conditions for school principals are aligned with the remuneration framework for public school teachers in Hessen. Salaries are structured to ensure they are not significantly lower than teachers in comparable public schools and are paid regularly. Additionally, principals receive various allowances and benefits similar to those provided to other public school employees, including vacation entitlements and health insurance benefits.

School principals are typically employed on a contractual basis, with the initial appointment being provisional and subject to confirmation following a satisfactory evaluation period. The contracts are formalized in writing and outline the terms and conditions of employment, including job responsibilities, performance expectations, and appointment duration.

In the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, according to the 2010 School Act (Schulgesetz - SchulG M-V), amended in 2023, the salary of school principals in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is determined by the state's pay scale for civil servants and educators. The remuneration package includes a basic salary supplemented by various allowances and benefits, such as additional payments for extra duties like managing larger schools.

In the state of Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony), according to the 1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023, the salary structure for school principals is aligned with the broader public service salary regulations. It is determined by the salary group A 13 of the higher service, including family allowances and other supplements as per the 2016 Remuneration Act (Besoldungsgesetz), amended in 2023.

In the state of Saarland, school principals are civil servants. Their salary is decided according to the 1989 Personnel Representation Act, amended in 2023. Furthermore, they receive maternity protection and parental leave according to the 2019 Ordinance on Maternity Protection for Civil Servants and Judges and the 2015 Ordinance on Parental Leave for Civil Servants and Judges, amended in 2021.

In the state of Saxony-Anhalt, according to the 2003 Law for the promotion and care of children in daycare centers and daycare (Kinderförderungsgesetz (KiFöG)), amended in 2023

In the state of Saxony, in early childhood care and education (ECCE) centres, according to the 2009 Law on Child Daycare, amended in 2024, pedagogical specialists are allocated specific hours within their weekly workload—one hour for those working at least 22 hours per week and two hours for those working at least 34 hours per week. This allocation excludes time spent on management duties.

Furthermore, in schools, according to the 2018 School Law (Sächsisches Schulgesetz), amended in 2023, school principals and deputy school principals are set according to the 2023 Remuneration Act (amended in 2024). They also get family allowance, job allowance, overtime pay, and foreign salary in case of an assignment abroad. Furthermore, principals and deputy principals holding civil servant status are also provided with performance-based remuneration.

In the state of Schleswig-Holstein, according to the 2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024, school principals’ salary includes their basic remuneration as civil servants or employees, costs for temporary replacements, pension benefits, relocation and separation allowances, travel expenses, and contributions to social insurance and supplementary pensions.

In the state of Thuringia, according to the 2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021, violations related to the proper administration of school duties or non-compliance with specific legal and administrative regulations can lead to financial penalties. These fines serve as a deterrent against negligence and misconduct, ensuring that school principals adhere strictly to their responsibilities and maintain the integrity of the educational environment.

2.3. Leadership preparation and training

Professional development opportunities for school leaders vary among states. Most states do not distinguish between pre-service and in-service training opportunities. Furthermore, only a few explicitly mention the training's content, duration, and mandatory nature.

In the state of Bremen, in early childhood care and education (ECCE), according to the 2000 Law on the Support of Children in Day Facilities and Day Care (Bremisches Tageseinrichtungs- und Kindertagespflegegesetz - BremKTG), amended in 2019, social education specialists are provided with further training to ensure the quality of educational work in ECCE centres. However, it does not mention the duration and content of the training.

In the state of Hamburg, according to the 2004 Childcare Act (KibeG), amended in 2022, pedagogical specialists are provided with regular training opportunities. The explicit content of the training and duration is not present in the official document. However, an advisory body, the qualification board, is established to meet the evolving demands of their profession through training and continuing education initiatives. This board comprises representatives from relevant authorities, daycare providers and associations, socio-educational universities of applied sciences, and training centres in Hamburg. The board is tasked with identifying specialist training needs, coordinating adjustments to theoretical and practical training programs, and monitoring the capacity of education pedagogical specialist training to meet the city's requirements.

Furthermore, in schools, according to the 1997 School Act (HmbSG), amended in 2024, professional development opportunities are provided to school principals. However, the training's content, duration and mandatory nature are not specified.

In the state of Hessen, according to the 2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023, the mandatory continuous professional development training covers quality development, school program implementation, internal evaluations, and advisory service utilization. Principals learn organizational skills, such as creating timetables and supervision schedules, and methods for teaching supervision, including classroom visits and teacher consultations. The training also includes personnel management, cooperation with health authorities, and strategies for engaging with student and parent councils. Furthermore, principals are trained to engage with the community and collaborate with various educational and administrative bodies.

In the state of Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony), the 1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023, highlights the necessity for ongoing professional development for school principals. It mandates that principals engage in regular training and development activities to keep abreast of the latest educational practices and administrative skills. This continuous learning process is crucial for principals to adapt to evolving educational standards and to enhance their leadership capabilities.

In the state of Saxony-Anhalt, according to the 2003 Law for the promotion and care of children in daycare centers and daycare (Kinderförderungsgesetz (KiFöG)), amended in 2023, to fulfill their managerial duty, ongoing training is mandated for all education pedagogical specialists and their assistants, with facilities obligated to facilitate this development. Recognizing the importance of continual professional growth, the state allocates resources from its budget to support further training initiatives for education pedagogical specialists and assistants. Moreover, in a bid to bolster specialist educational guidance services, local public youth welfare providers receive financial assistance from the state. This assistance, totalling 130,000 euros annually from 2020 to 2024, is contingent upon providers expanding existing advisory services by at least two full-time positions.

Furthermore, in schools, according to the 2018 School Law (Schulgesetz), training for school principals is mandatory. Principals are required to participate in regular professional development activities, including those offered during their non-teaching periods. They are required to document their participation in these training activities through a professional development passport, which tracks the training completed and its focus areas. The content of the training includes pedagogical innovations; administrative and management skills, covering legal and financial management, personnel supervision, and organizational leadership; educational quality and standards, focusing on methods to evaluate teaching effectiveness, student performance, and overall school improvement; and collaboration and communication, aimed at enhancing skills for working effectively with teachers, students, parents, and educational authorities. The State Institute for School Quality and Teacher Training Saxony-Anhalt (Landesinstitut für Schulqualität und Lehrerbildung Sachsen-Anhalt) plays a pivotal role in this regard, organizing and conducting central and regional training sessions in collaboration with local universities.

In the state of Schleswig-Holstein, in early childhood education and care (ECCE) centres, according to the 2019 Child Daycare Act (Kindertagesförderungsgesetz (KiTaG)), amended in 2024, each ECCE centre is mandated to ensure that all pedagogical staff, including managers, regularly participate in professional development activities. These training sessions are critical for maintaining and enhancing the quality of care provided. Specifically, pedagogical staff must undergo first aid training and refresh their skills with a follow-up course every two years.

In schools, according to the 2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024, school principals are required to participate in mandatory continuous professional development to remain effective in their roles. This training, organized by the Institute for Quality Development (Institut für Qualitätsentwicklung an Schulen), covers educational leadership, administration, personnel management, communication, and legal and ethical responsibilities. The program ensures principals stay updated with the latest practices and procedures, focusing on instructional quality, operational management, staff development, stakeholder engagement, and adherence to legal standards.

In the state of Thuringia, according to the 2017 Kindergarten Act (Kindergartengesetz (ThürKigaG)), amended in 2023, early childhood education and care (ECCE) centres must facilitate the continuous professional development of their pedagogical staff and managers. Centres are required to release pedagogical specialists from work obligations to attend qualified training programs that align with the daycare centre's educational concept. During these training periods, the employer must continue to pay their salaries and cover the training costs. Each staff member is entitled to at least two working days of training per calendar year, irrespective of their daily working hours. The responsibility for training is shared between the daycare providers and the state, with the state offering specialized training, particularly for specialist advisors and pedagogical staff, to support daycare centres in fulfilling their educational roles. The local public youth welfare provider also organizes training sessions, especially for daycare providers and childminders, and coordinates cross-provider training in collaboration with the support system for primary schools.

In schools, according to the 2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021, school principals must undergo continuous professional development to maintain and enhance their leadership skills. This includes mandatory training programs organized by the Ministry of Education, ensuring principals stay updated with the latest educational policies, management techniques, and pedagogical advancements. The training programs cover various topics essential for effective school management. These include educational leadership, administrative law, conflict resolution, budget management, pedagogical strategies, and school quality assurance.

Some states also provide professional advice and consultations. For example, in the state of Saxony, in early childhood care and education (ECCE) centres, according to the 2009 Law on Child Daycare, amended in 2024, specialist consultations for pedagogical specialists (who act as managers of ECCE) are organized by the State Youth Welfare office. In the state of Brandenburg, according to the 2004 Second law implementing the eighth book of the Social Code - child and youth welfare (Kindertagesstättengesetz - KitaG), amended in 2024, every staff of early childhood care and education (ECCE) centre has right for professional advice, support and ongoing qualifications in all questions relating to child day care from the local public youth welfare agency. Specialist advice can also be provided by independent child and youth welfare providers. In the state of Hessen, in early childhood and care education (ECCE), according to the 2006 Child and Youth Welfare Code (HKJGB), amended in 2023, local youth welfare agencies provide advisory services during the planning and operation phases to pedagogical specialists responsible for managing ECCE centres.

3. Teachers, parents and students

3.1. School management committees and boards

The role and composition of school management committees and boards vary among states.

In the state of Berlin, according to the 2004 School Law (Schulgesetz - SchulG), amended in 2023, at every school, a school conference is formed, serving as the paramount advisory and decision-making entity for the school's self-development. Comprising students, their legal guardians, and school staff fosters collaboration among these stakeholders. The school conference convenes to deliberate on significant school affairs and acts as a mediator in case of disagreements.

Every school also has the option to establish an extended school management team. With the school principal’s approval, this team determines internal task allocations, while the school principal retains the remaining rights and obligations. The extended school management team comprises the school principal, functional position holders, primary school teachers, additional support management, school-related youth social work specialists, and up to four voting members elected by the entire conference. Women and men are equally represented in the committee.

Furthermore, at all schools, except primary and vocational schools, a school forum is established to handle various matters outlined by law. In primary schools, where applicable, the parents' council must be engaged in decisions that fall under the purview of the school forum. Meanwhile, the vocational school advisory board assumes the forum's responsibilities at vocational schools. The forum consists of the school principal, three teachers elected by their peers, the parents' council chair, two council members chosen by parents, the student committee, and a representative from the school funding agency. However, exceptions apply to certain types of schools. Chaired by the school principal, the forum deliberates on binding decisions for the school and recommends other issues affecting students, parents, and teachers. Essential matters, if unresolved, are referred to the school supervisory authority. The forum also addresses questions related to school organization, safety, construction, social work, and nomenclature, with the opportunity for prior input. Additionally, the forum can mediate conflicts and participate in specific decision-making processes, as detailed in the school regulations.

In the state of Brandenburg, according to the 2002 Law on Schools (Brandenburgisches Schulgesetz - BbgSchulG), amended in 2024, the school conference decides on matters about lessons taught in secondary schools across grades.

In the state of Hamburg, according to the 1997 School Act (HmbSG), amended in 2024, the school conference, the highest decision-making body in the school's self-governance, consists of the principal and elected members from the student council, parent council, and teachers' conference. Schools with up to 300 students include three representatives each from these groups; schools with 301-800 students include four representatives each, and schools with more than 800 students include five representatives each. Additionally, non-teaching staff elect one member from their group. At schools with diverse age groups, at least one parent representative must have a child in both the primary and secondary sections, and similarly, teacher representatives must come from both sections. This conference is responsible for crucial decisions about school policies, development plans, and the evaluation of educational outcomes, ensuring cooperation among students, parents, teachers, and other staff members.

In the state of Hessen, according to the 2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023, the school conference serves as a central body for joint consultation and decision-making within the school community, which includes teachers, parents, and students. It addresses all significant matters concerning the school and mediates in case of disagreements. The conference holds the authority to make decisions on critical issues such as the school's program, applications for transformation into independent schools, principles for the establishment and scope of voluntary teaching and care offers, and the organization of middle school education. Moreover, it can issue recommendations to other conferences, which must be considered in subsequent meetings. Membership comprises the school principal as the chairperson and representatives from the teaching staff, parents, and students, with a total membership ranging from 11 to 25 members depending on the school's size.

In the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, according to the 2010 School Act (Schulgesetz - SchulG M-V), amended in 2023, the school conference is composed of the school principal, representatives of the teachers, parents, and students, and a representative of the school authority. The exact composition depends on the size and type of school. For schools with up to 300 students, the conference has 7 members; schools with up to 500 students have 13 members; those with up to 1,000 students have 19 members; and schools with more than 1,000 have 25 members. The school conference is tasked with discussing and deciding on critical issues such as the cooperation between teachers, students, and parents and the involvement of vocational training companies in vocational schools. It ensures that decisions with financial implications are coordinated with the school authority. Additionally, the school conference acts as a mediator in case of conflicts and strives for a balanced consideration of interests.

In the state of Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony), in early childhood care and education (ECCE) centres, according to the 2021 Law on Day Care Centers and Child Day Care (NKiTaG), the advisory board, consisting of group spokespersons, daycare management and staff representatives, and provider-appointed members, consult on critical decisions, including educational concepts, group establishment and closure, child admission numbers, and period determinations. This board also advises on budget use and parental cost contributions, ensuring collaborative decision-making and active parental involvement in ECCE centres' operations.

In schools, according to the 1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023, the school conference (Gesamtkonferenz) is the main decision-making body involving all participants in the educational and instructional processes. It is responsible for major pedagogical decisions, including the school program, rules, and core academic principles. Its composition includes the school principal, all full-time and part-time teachers, trainees, pedagogical staff, representatives of other staff categories, and elected representatives of parents and students.

In the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), according to the 2005 School Law, the organizational structure of the school management (schulleitung) is primarily composed of the school principal and the permanent deputy, with the possibility of a second vice-principal being included in this body. Additionally, the ministry has the authority to permit further individual involvement in extended school management. In instances where the school principal cannot fulfil their duties, the permanent deputy assumes responsibility, followed by another member of the school management if necessary. If no other management team member is available or able to attend, the responsibility falls to the school's longest-serving teacher unless the principal designates a different teacher.

Furthermore, a school conference (schulkonferenz) needs to be established at every school. It is the highest participation body of the school, in which all those involved in the educational and upbringing work of the school collaborate. Schools with up to 200 students, 500 students, and over 500 students must establish a school conference with 6, 12, and 18 members. Members of the school conference are the principal and the elected representatives of teachers, parents, and students in the following ratio: Teachers: Parents: Students. The school conference may decide to increase the number of members with the votes of two-thirds of its members while maintaining the ratio, as discussed further. At primary schools, the ratio is 1: 1: 0. At the secondary level I schools, schools with primary and secondary level I, and schools with secondary level I and II, the ratio is 1: 1: 1. At secondary level II schools, the ratio is 3: 1: 2. The chairperson of the school parents' council and the student representative or representatives are each member of the school conference, counting towards the number of representatives of parents and students, unless they decline. The school principal chairs the school conference. They, as well as the deputy in case of absence, have no voting rights. In case of a tie, the principal's vote decides. The deputy and the liaison teachers participate in the school conference in an advisory capacity. The school conference may appoint representatives of school-related services and individuals from the school environment as advisory members. In doing so, pedagogical and socio-pedagogical professionals who work within extracurricular activities and are not part of the school are mainly considered.

The school conference addresses critical matters such as the school program, quality development strategies, cooperation agreements, holiday scheduling, lesson allocation, digital platforms usage, extracurricular services, event planning, inclusive education promotion, administrative model testing, learning material selection, homework and exam guidelines, educational challenge strategies, violence prevention measures, counselling services, student group regulation, evaluation criteria, economic management, budgeting, principal appointment, conferences establishment, participation procedures, rule issuance, alcohol ban exceptions, parental representation, and uniform recommendations. These decisions aim to enhance educational quality, administrative efficiency, and student well-being.

In the state of Rhineland-Palatinate, in early childhood care and education (ECCE), according to the 2019 Law on the Upbringing, Education and Care of Children in daycare centers and child daycare (KiTaG), every ECCE centre is required to establish an advisory board comprised of representatives from various stakeholders including the day care provider, management, educational staff, and parents. Together, they collaborate to make recommendations on fundamental matters affecting the structural foundations of the centre's operations, considering the perspective of children gained from everyday educational experiences. This advisory board is to be composed of equal numbers of representatives from each stakeholder group, with an additional pedagogical specialist providing insight into the children's perspective. Voting shares within the advisory board are allocated proportionally among the different stakeholders, with the chairmanship held by a member appointed by the daycare provider.

The 2008 School regulations for public primary schools (Schulordnung für die öffentlichen Grundschulen), amended in 2019, only mention different roles of the school committee and school conference. For example, the committee determines school domestic rules. They do not explicitly mention their composition. Furthermore, according to the 2000 School regulations for public special schools (Schulordnung für die öffentlichen Sonderschulen), amended in 2019, the admissions committee is composed of three key members: the school principal tasked with overseeing the proceedings, a teacher serving as the coordinator for Grade 5, and a delegate from the school parents' council. The committee determines admissions criteria and the selection process.

In the state of Saxony-Anhalt, according to the 2018 School Law (Schulgesetz), the school conference comprises the principal, teachers, and parent and student representatives. Parent and student representatives are half the number of teachers and educational staff. In schools without student representation, the number of parent seats doubles; in secondary schools, additional student representatives may fill parent seats. A representative of the school authority and other advisory members, such as educational assistants and support staff representatives, also participate. The conference is responsible for decisions on fundamental matters concerning the school, including educational and pedagogical concepts, school programs, performance assessments, school events, and collaboration with parents and the school authority.

In the state of Saxony, according to the 2018 School Law (Sächsisches Schulgesetz), amended in 2023, The composition of the school conference is structured to ensure a comprehensive representation of the school community. It includes the school principal acting as the chairman without voting rights and facilitating the proceedings. Four teacher representatives contribute professional insights and perspectives on educational matters. A deputy chairman represents the parent council, typically the chairman of the parents' council, along with three additional parent representatives, ensuring that parental views are well-represented. Student representation is secured by four student representatives, including the student representative and three additional members who are required to be at least in grade 7, providing a voice for the student body. Additionally, the school authority is represented by up to four members, integrating administrative and policy perspectives into the conference's deliberations.

The school conference is tasked with deciding on key issues influencing the school's educational and operational framework. These include setting the school program and implementing quality assurance measures like internal evaluations. It also issues house rules, manages budget distribution, and addresses stakeholder complaints with broader implications. Additionally, the conference decides on non-binding teaching events, principles for extracurricular activities, and class size exceptions. It ensures compliance with legal and administrative provisions, fosters school partnerships, and coordinates with other educational entities. Specific administrative duties include handling changes in school type, cross-year lessons, school experiments, school naming, scientific research projects, budget requests, and teacher working capital. Furthermore, it oversees the establishment of community schools (oberschüle) and determines cost contributions.

In the state of Schleswig-Holstein, according to the 2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024, the school conference is the highest decision-making body in a school. It comprises an equal number of representatives from the teaching staff, parents, and students, ensuring gender parity as much as possible. The school principal implements the decisions made by the school conference. The composition varies with the school's size: smaller schools (up to 300 students) have eight representatives each, while larger schools (over 1,200 students) have fourteen representatives from teachers, parents, and students. Additional non-voting members include representatives from the technical staff, administrative personnel, and social-pedagogical specialists.

In the state of Thuringia, according to the 2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021, the school conference (Schulkonferenz) serves as the main decision-making body within the school, facilitating collaboration among teachers, parents, students, and educators, and is chaired by the school principal without voting rights. Its composition varies by school type: equal teacher and parent representation in primary schools, with additional non-voting student representatives; equal representation of teachers, parents, and students in secondary schools; and specialized inclusion in special schools. It handles decisions on school organization, educational and safety measures, budget allocation, and mediation of conflicts, ensuring a comprehensive approach to school governance.

3.2. Middle leaders

In addition to their involvement in school conferences, teachers in nearly every state establish a distinct governing body known as the teacher conference (lehrerkonferenz). The role and composition of the teacher conference vary among states.

In the state of Bavaria, according to the amended in 2023, every school is required to form a teachers' conference, which may establish sub-conferences for different departments if the school offers various types of courses. Additionally, schools with over 25 teachers who dedicate at least half of their time to teaching are required to form disciplinary and teaching materials committees alongside other committees. The members of the teachers' conference include all teachers, civil servants in training who independently teach, special education teachers, and support staff. Chaired by the school principal, the conference ensures educational and pedagogical collaboration among teachers, though the school principal retains authority over educational matters. Decisions made by the teachers' conference, by legal regulations, are binding for the school principal and conference members, while other resolutions serve as recommendations.

In the state of Berlin, as mentioned in Subsection 3.1, teachers are members of the school management team, crisis team, school forum, and examination committee.

In the state of Baden-Württemberg, according to the 2009 Law on the Care and Support of Children in Kindergartens, Other day care facilities and Child day care (Kindertagesbetreuungsgesetz (KiTag)), state-recognized teachers with a specialization in youth and home education, social pedagogues, social workers, and qualified pedagogues with expertise in social pedagogy act as specialists.

In the state of Brandenburg, according to the2002 Law on Schools (Brandenburgisches Schulgesetz - BbgSchulG), amended in 2024, teachers, in addition to teaching, are also members of state and religious communities and provide instruction on behalf of them. Furthermore, they are provided with additional state subsidies in doing so.

In the state of Hamburg, according to the 1997 School Act (HmbSG), amended in 2024, the teachers' conference comprises the school principal, who serves as the chairperson, and teachers of the school. Members with voting rights include those who teach at least six hours per week and other educational staff working at least a quarter of the regular working hours at the school. The school principal convenes the conference and must be called if a quarter of its members request it. The sessions are not public, but the conference can invite other individuals to its meetings. The teachers' conference discusses and decides on essential aspects of educational and instructional work, such as principles of teaching methods, performance assessments, distribution of teaching duties, and internal professional development. It also cooperates with other school bodies to promote educational and administrative efficiency.

In the state of Hessen, according to the 2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023, the teacher conference includes all teachers authorized to teach the specific subject, field, or learning area. It is responsible for discussing all matters related to a particular subject or learning area and makes decisions within the framework of legal and administrative regulations. The conference focuses on didactic and methodological issues, coordination of learning objectives and content, creating work plans and course offerings, and selecting and introducing approved textbooks and digital learning materials. Additionally, it addresses the coordination of performance assessments and professional development in specialized subjects.

In the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, according to the 2010 School Act (Schulgesetz - SchulG M-V), amended in 2023, the teacher conference consists of all teachers and pedagogical staff at the school, including the school principal who serves as the chairperson. If the school comprises multiple educational paths or types, sub-conferences or committees can be established within the teacher conference. This body primarily coordinates educational and teaching efforts, ensuring the pedagogical collaboration of the school's teaching staff. The teacher conference discusses and decides on matters directly affecting teachers, such as principles of lesson organization, representation of absent teachers, and the development and implementation of individual support plans. It also decides on the formation of subject-specific conferences, allocating specific tasks to teachers, and teacher training and development issues.

In the state of Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony), according to the 1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023, the teacher conference is formed for each subject or group of subjects and decides on curriculum implementation and teaching materials. Furthermore, the class conference is established for each class, focusing on issues affecting individual students and overall class management. These conferences primarily consist of the teachers assigned to the relevant subjects or classes, along with other pedagogical staff and occasionally include representatives of parents and students.

In the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), according to the 2005 School Law, the teacher conference comprises all teachers and educational and social pedagogical staff within a school, with the principal as chairperson. It convenes to discuss and decide on significant school matters, with the authority to propose to the broader school conference. This includes establishing principles for teaching assignments, particular task allocation, teacher training, individual teaching hours, and participation in testing new working time models. Additionally, it can propose teaching materials and address other issues relevant to teachers and educational staff. The teacher conference also elects representatives for the school conference and may establish sub-conferences for specific matters.

Furthermore, establishing a teacher council (lehrerrat) further solidifies the role of teachers and staff in school governance. Elected for four school years, the teacher council advises the principal on matters concerning teachers and staff, acting as a mediator in professional issues upon request. It replaces the traditional employee council when the principal assumes employer responsibilities. The council operates under the State Personnel Representation Act framework, with provisions for decision-making and participation procedures. The teacher council reports annually to the teacher conference, and its members are expected to be adequately relieved of teaching duties to fulfil their responsibilities. The teacher conference promptly conducts by-elections in case of member resignation to maintain the council's operational continuity. This comprehensive structure ensures teacher involvement in school governance, fostering collaboration and ensuring their voices are heard in decision-making processes.

In the state of Rhineland-Palatinate, as mentioned in Subsection 3.1, teachers are members of the secondary school examination committee.

In the state of Saxony-Anhalt, according to the 2018 School Law (Schulgesetz), the teacher conference consists of all teachers and educational staff at the school. It addresses specific educational issues related to particular subjects. This includes coordinating teaching methods, setting performance assessments, and making curriculum and school program decisions. It operates within the framework set by the school conference and ensures that educational policies are implemented consistently across all subjects.

In the state of Saxony, according to the 2018 School Law (Sächsisches Schulgesetz), amended in 2023, teachers form teacher conferences, which also encompass various sub-conferences, notably the subject and class conference. These conferences serve as critical forums where teachers deliberate and decide on essential actions required for the school's instructional and educational activities. Furthermore, as mentioned in Subsection 3.1, teachers are also members of the school conference or board.

In the state of Schleswig-Holstein, according to the 2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024, the teacher conference plays a crucial role in advising the school principal on educational and administrative matters. It includes all teaching staff and elected representatives from social-pedagogical professionals and other school employees. The teacher conference is responsible for electing teacher representatives to the school conference and preparing issues to be discussed there. It also establishes guidelines for coordinated educational approaches, curriculum and methodology harmonization, and the distribution of administrative tasks among teachers. Additionally, it makes decisions on educational principles, such as the structure of lesson plans and the deployment of teaching resources.

In the state of Thuringia, according to the 2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021, the teacher conference includes all teachers and other educational staff, such as special educators and social workers. It is responsible for discussing and deciding on educational and pedagogical matters within the school. The principal chairs this conference, and its decisions are binding for the school's operation. The Lehrerkonferenz also ensures professional collaboration among teachers and maintains the integrity of the school's pedagogical activities.

3.3. Parents

At the federal level, the 1949 Basic Law (Grundgesetz) does not explicitly mention the role and composition of the parent council. However, it provides rights to parents and guardians to decide whether children should receive religious instruction.

In early childhood education and care (ECEC), Book Eight of the Social Code (Achtes Buch Sozialgesetzbuch - Kinder - und Jugendhilfe) stipulates that parents and legal guardians play a pivotal role in decision-making concerning crucial aspects of instruction, education, and care. This involvement is facilitated, among other means, through establishing parents' councils (elternbeiräte) regulated by regional laws. At an individual level, professionals within these establishments are mandated to collaborate closely with parents and legal guardians to uphold the well-being of the children and ensure the seamless continuity of the educational journey.

Almost every state has a parent council in their schools and its role and composition vary among states.

In the state of Baden-Württemberg, according to the 2009 Law on the Care and Support of Children in Kindergartens, Other day care facilities and Child day care (Kindertagesbetreuungsgesetz (KiTag)), parent councils are established to foster communication with families. These councils have the option to unify locally, regionally, or nationally. However, the act does not explicitly mention the composition of councils.

In the state of Bavaria, in early childhood education and care (ECEC), according to the 2005 Law on the education, upbringing and care of children in kindergartens, other daycare facilities and in daycare (Bayerisches Kinderbildungs - und - Betreuungsgesetz - BayKiBiG) (amended in 2023), establishing a parents' advisory council in every daycare facility is necessary to foster stronger collaboration among parents, staff, and providers. This council advises on annual planning, staffing levels, organizing parent events, and setting operational parameters such as opening hours and parental contributions. Additionally, the council actively contributes to updating the educational concept, ensuring alignment with the children's and the community's evolving needs. Funds raised by the council are utilized in agreement with the provider, benefiting the daycare's overall objectives. Furthermore, the council's accountability is upheld by submitting an annual report to parents and providers, ensuring transparency and accountability within the daycare's operations. Parents also take part in the state advisory council at the State Ministry for Family, Labor and Social Affairs.

In the state of Berlin, in early childhood care and education (ECCE), according to the 2005 Law on the support of children in daycare centers and daycare (Kindertagesförderungsgesetz - KitaFöG), amended in 2021, in each district, a district parents' committee is established, comprising parents who are elected representatives. Parent representatives select a deputy for the district parents' committee from among themselves annually. This committee holds significance as it must be consulted by the youth welfare office on significant matters concerning day care. Furthermore, representatives for the state parents' committee are elected from the district parents' committee members. The senate department overseeing youth and families is mandated to keep the state parents' committee informed about crucial issues related to day care and education. Moreover, within the parameters of existing budget or material resources, the state parents' committee may receive support to fulfil its duties.

Furthermore, according to the 2004 School Law (Schulgesetz - SchulG), amended in 2023, the composition of parents' councils is governed by specific regulations. For every 50 students, a primary, middle, or special school must elect one parent's council member per 15 students, with a minimum of five and a maximum of twelve members. Additional advisory members may be appointed by resolution, not exceeding a third of the elected members. The parents' association holds the right to establish its own procedural rules. If a school hosts at least 50 students during council elections or 15 students in specific settings like hostels, the head of that institution automatically becomes a council member unless they serve as the school's principal, teacher, or special needs educator. The same applies if these students comprise a fifth of the school population. The joint parents' council comprises the chairpersons and their deputies in municipalities or school associations with up to four primary or middle schools. If there are more than four schools, chairpersons elect a nine-member joint council from their ranks. The arrangement also extends to support centres, with participating parents' councils independently determining the joint council's composition.

In the state of Brandenburg, according to the 2004 Second law implementing the eighth book of the Social Code - child and youth welfare (Kindertagesstättengesetz - KitaG), amended in 2024, early childhood care and education (ECCE) are mandated to form parents’ advisory council. The election process for the district daycare parents' council ensures effective parental representation in daycare. A member and representative is selected each year, with a two-year electoral period. This period ends with the assembly of the new council or within three months of the year's start. Regional authorities can limit council members and conduct elections through representative meetings. The council's formation depends on parental participation, with membership ending either at the close of the electoral period or when the member's child leaves the facility. There is also a parents’ advisory council and advisory board at the state level.

In the state of Bremen, in early childhood care and education (ECCE), according to the 2000 Law on the Support of Children in Day Facilities and Day Care (Bremisches Tageseinrichtungs- und Kindertagespflegegesetz - BremKTG), amended in 2019, parents of children of ECCE centres form the parents’ committee. The committee elects the parents’ council, which supports the performance of the centre’s tasks.

In the state of Hamburg, according to the 2004 Childcare Act (KibeG), amended in 2022, parents of children of ECCE centres form the parents’ committee. The committee serves as a mediator to maintain the cooperation between parents and ECCE centres. The committee is consulted before any major decisions are made at ECCE centres, especially when it comes to changes in the pedagogical concept and its implementation. Furthermore, the committee elects a representative from its members and a deputy for the formation of similar committees at the district and state levels.

Furthermore, according to the 1997 School Act (HmbSG), amended in 2024, the parents' council (Elternrat) composition in schools ensures representation from each school level. In schools with both primary and secondary levels, at least one-third of the council members must represent each level. The council size varies with school size: schools with up to 26 classes have nine members, while those with more than 26 classes have 12 members. Additionally, for every 9 classes beyond 35, 3 more representatives are added. The council informs parents or class parent representatives about current school issues and significant decisions made by the school conference or school board, organizing meetings to discuss these matters. It collaborates with the school administration, teachers, and the student council to fulfil its educational and social mission and engages with the regional community to support the school's interests. It also represents and advocates for the parents by electing members for the district parents' council and the school conference or school board, as well as providing input on important decisions such as merging or dividing classes and transferring classes to other schools. Additionally, the council supports class parent representatives in their tasks, participates in parent-teacher meetings, and ensures effective communication between parents and teachers. It meets at least once a year to report on its activities and discuss school matters with the parent community. It can also hold public meetings and invite other stakeholders, including the school administration and class parent representatives, to foster transparency and collaboration.

In the state of Hessen, in early childhood and care education (ECCE), according to the 2006 Child and Youth Welfare Code (HKJGB), amended in 2023, the establishment of a parents' assembly, comprised of parents and guardians of children, is required, with meetings convened at least annually or upon request by the parents. This assembly elects a parents' council, which is crucial in advising on essential matters and ensuring transparency. Furthermore, parental representation extends to municipal, district, and state levels, with structures in place for parents to engage in broader policy discussions and decision-making processes.

In schools, according to the 2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023, the parent council ensures parental involvement in the educational process and supports collaboration between the school, family, and vocational training institutions. Parent councils are established at public schools to uphold parents' rights to participate in school affairs. Elections for parent representatives are held secretly, and representatives serve fixed terms. The council's responsibilities include exercising the right to co-determine school matters and being consulted on decisions that affect the school's operation. It can form committees to address specific issues related to particular school levels or branches. Additionally, it holds the authority to approve significant school decisions and propose measures requiring its consent or consultation.

In the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, according to the 2010 School Act (Schulgesetz - SchulG M-V), amended in 2023, the parent council represents the interests of the student's parents in all matters related to the educational and school life of their children. It consists of the chairpersons of the class parent representatives and supports the work of class parent representatives in fostering cooperation between the school and the parents. At the beginning of each term, the parent council elects its board, including a chairperson, two deputies, and two to five additional representatives. These representatives also serve in the school conference and subject-specific conferences. The parent council plays an advisory role, particularly in school policy and organization, and ensures that parents' perspectives and needs are considered in school decisions.

In the state of Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony), in early childhood care and education (ECCE) centres, according to the 2021 Law on Day Care Centers and Child Day Care (NKiTaG), the parents' council comprises group spokespersons elected by parents of children in each core time group, with the election procedures managed by the council. These spokespersons collectively form the parents' council. Municipal and city parents' councils can be formed if most individual councils participate, with higher-level councils such as district and state parents' councils established under similar conditions.

In schools, according to the 1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023, the parents' council (Schulelternrat) comprises the elected chairpersons of the class parents' associations (Klassenelternschaften). It provides a structured platform for parental involvement in school decision-making, particularly regarding issues that impact the education and welfare of their children. The council elects representatives to various school committees, including the school conference, and discusses matters of common concern between parents and the school administration. The parents' council ensures that parental voices are heard and considered in the school's governance.

In the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), according to the 2005 School Law, the school parent council (schulpflegschaft) functions as a representative body, comprising chairs from class parent councils and elected representatives from grade levels, with deputies attending in advisory roles when necessary. The principal also participates in an advisory capacity, while two students from grade 7 onward, chosen by the student council (as discussed in the next section), may offer advisory votes. The council elects a chairperson and up to three deputies, with deputy chairs from class and grade-level parent councils eligible for membership. Its primary role is to advocate for parental interests in school matters, providing advice and submitting proposals to the school conference. Additionally, the council can convene parent assemblies to inform and seek input on important school issues. Collaboration with other school parent councils at local and supra-local levels is encouraged to represent collective interests to school authorities and supervision. The class parent council consists of parents from each class, with advisory votes from the class teacher and student representatives. They discuss school matters and select teaching content, with the involvement of class teachers as needed. In cases where there's no class association, grade-level parent councils are formed, representatives for the school parent council are elected based on student numbers, and a chairperson and deputy are chosen annually.

In the early childhood care and education (ECCE), the 2019 Children’s Education Act (KiBiZ) establishes the parents' assembly, the parents' council, and the council of the early childhood education facility. The parents' assembly, composed of parents whose children attend the facility, convenes at least once per kindergarten year and is facilitated by the sponsor. During these assemblies, members elect representatives to form the parents' council, entrusted with voicing the concerns and interests of the current year's parents to both the facility's sponsor and management. This council holds a pivotal role in ensuring that the specific needs of children with disabilities or impending disabilities, along with their parents, are duly considered. Their mandate extends beyond the kindergarten year, providing continuity in representation until a new council is elected.

Furthermore, the parents' council acts as a source for crucial information exchange, being kept abreast of significant decisions regarding the facility's operations. Their involvement is particularly vital in financial matters, where their approval is required for decisions impacting parents, such as event planning and catering arrangements. Additionally, the council collaborates with representatives from the sponsor and staff within the broader early childhood education facility council, offering valuable insights and recommendations on educational practices, resource allocation, and admission criteria.

In the state of Rhineland-Palatinate, in early childhood care and education, according to the 2019 Law on the Upbringing, Education and Care of Children in daycare centers and child daycare (KiTaG), parents play an integral role in the upbringing, education, and care provided by ECCE centres, engaging through the parents' meetings and the parents' committee. The parents' meeting comprises all parents of enrolled children. This forum informs parents about significant developments within the centre, fostering discussions on crucial matters and facilitating the election of the parents' committee. In turn, the parents' committee advocates for parental interests to the centre's management and provider, offering advice and ensuring timely and comprehensive communication regarding decisions impacting the facility. Empowered to request information and offer suggestions, the committee collaborates with management and the provider in regular meetings. Legal regulations set by the responsible ministry dictate further specifics concerning the formation, functions, and decision-making processes of the parents' meeting and committee.

Furthermore, the 2008 School regulations for public primary schools (Schulordnung für die öffentlichen Grundschulen), amended in 2019 and 2009 School regulations for public secondary schools (Übergreifende Schulordnung), amended in 2021, mention the school parents‘ council; however, they do not provide the exact composition of the council. The council provides consent when it comes to making regulations on class attendance.

In the state of Saarland, in early chidhood and education (ECCE) centres, according to the 2022 Education, Upbringing, and Care Act (SBEBG), parents' council plays a crucial role in representing the interests of parents and children, acting as a liaison between families and facility management to ensure concerns are effectively addressed and fostering a collaborative environment for transparent decision-making. The council participates in essential decision-making processes and is informed about significant matters related to children's education, upbringing, and care, actively contributing to the operational and educational strategies of the facility. Composed through annual elections at a parents' assembly, the council ensures a broad representation of the parent body. Beyond the ECCE centre level, parent councils are also formed at the district and regional levels.

In the state of Saxony-Anhalt, according to the 2018 School Law (Schulgesetz), the parent council comprises the chairpersons of each class's parent association. It elects a board consisting of a chairperson, a deputy, up to three additional members, and the parent representatives for the school conference. The council can discuss and decide on all school-related issues, submit proposals to the school conference, and ensure parents' perspectives are considered in school decisions. It is critical for maintaining effective communication between the school and parents, especially regarding educational policies and school organization.

In the state of Saxony, according to the 2018 School Law (Sächsisches Schulgesetz), amended in 2023, the class parent representatives collectively constitute the parent council, ensuring direct representation of parental interests within the school community. The parent council assumes a crucial advocacy role as a liaison between parents, the school, and relevant authorities. This encompasses the right to access information, lodge complaints with school management, and, crucially, the opportunity to provide input on matters of significant pedagogical and educational importance before the teachers' conferences make decisions. Additionally, the council exercises its autonomy by electing a chairperson and deputy from amongst its members. In schools where the council is absent, student representatives replace the parent representatives.

In the state of Schleswig-Holstein, in early childhood education and care (ECCE) centres, according to the 2019 Child Daycare Act (Kindertagesförderungsgesetz (KiTaG)), amended in 2024, the parent council is designed to represent the interests of the parents and guardians to the ECCE centre management and ensure their involvement in significant decisions affecting the centre's operation. The council is elected annually during the parents' assembly meetings, which must be held at least once per half-year at the group or facility level. It is responsible for electing delegates for the district parents' representation and collaborating closely with the daycare management on matters such as the development of the educational concept, admission criteria, and operational hours.

In schools, according to the 2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024, the parent council bridges the school and the parents, enhancing mutual trust and cooperation. It is formed at different levels: class, school, and district. The class parent council includes the class teacher and elected parent representatives, who discuss matters concerning the entire class. The school parent council comprises members elected from the class parent councils who support school-wide parental involvement and collaborate with the teacher conference. The district parent council represents parents at a higher administrative level, engaging in broader educational planning and policy discussions.

In the state of Thuringia, in early childhood education and care (ECCE) centres, according to the 2017 Kindergarten Act (Kindergartengesetz (ThürKigaG)), amended in 2023, the parent council must be consulted on various decisions, including educational concepts, spatial and material equipment, staffing, budget, group size and composition, house rules, opening and closing times, parental contributions, and provider changes. The council is composed of members elected every two years by the parents of each group, with each group electing one member and one deputy. In the absence of groups, one member and one deputy are elected for every 20 children. If the number of children exceeds 10 without representation, an additional member and deputy are elected.

In schools, according to the 2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021, the parents' council consists of elected parent representatives who participate in discussions and decisions of general importance to the school. They are informed by the principal about significant school matters and have rights to information, consultation, and initiative. This council plays a critical role in representing the parents' interests at school, district, and state levels, ensuring parental input is considered in educational policy and decision-making processes.

3.4. Students

Almost every state has a student council in their schools and its role and composition vary among states.

In the state of Berlin, according to the 2004 School Law (Schulgesetz - SchulG), amended in 2023, students have the right to form student groups and student councils. The student council elects a diverse group of representatives to fulfil various roles within the school community. This includes four members for the school conference, two for the district student committee, and two advisory members for both the general and specialist conferences, along with general parent representatives. Additionally, one advisory member each is chosen for further sub-conferences of teachers and legal guardians unless corresponding student sub-conferences exist. This structured approach ensures representation across different levels and interests within the school, fostering collaboration and effective communication between students, parents, and teachers. Student representatives of student councils actively advocate for their peers within the school system, participating in policy discussions and undertaking tasks independently.

In the state of Hamburg, according to the 1997 School Act (HmbSG), amended in 2024, the student council (schülerrat) comprises class representatives from all secondary school levels, school representatives, and representatives in the district student council. In schools for students with intellectual disabilities, age-appropriate and developmentally suitable forms of participation can be established instead of a student council upon the decision of the school conference. The council plays a crucial role in representing students' interests within the school and to the relevant authorities, independently undertaking self-assigned tasks within the school's educational mission. It can provide input on fundamental decisions made by the school conference or school board and on issues related to lesson design and performance evaluation. Additionally, it can raise voluntary contributions to cover costs and accept donations through the school association, provided these are free from any conditions. The school conference or school board allocates a fixed amount from the school's resources to the student council for conducting school-related events, and the council must account for the origin and use of these funds to the students and the school conference or board upon request.

In the state of Hessen, according to the 2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023, the student council represents students' interests within the school and external entities, including school supervisory authorities and the public. It is tasked with the self-responsible participation of students in achieving the educational and upbringing goals of the school. Students elect their representatives annually, who can participate in class conferences, except for sessions concerning grades and disciplinary measures. The council, led by the school spokesperson and their deputies, participates in the student conference and other teacher conferences with an advisory vote. The council also has the right to call at least one student assembly per school year to discuss their work and significant school issues. This assembly is held during school hours. The school principal is expected to provide the student council with the necessary resources and time to fulfil its duties and may intervene only to ensure compliance with legal and administrative regulations.

In the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, according to the 2010 School Act (Schulgesetz - SchulG M-V), amended in 2023, the student council is formed by the class or grade level representatives elected by the students of each class or grade. It represents the interests of all students at the school, participating in the realization of the school's educational objectives and promoting student involvement and responsibility. The student council elects its board, including the student speaker, two deputies, and up to two additional members. This board also includes the student representatives in the school and subject-specific conferences. The student council can establish working groups or organize events as part of its functions.

In the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), according to the 2005 School Law, the student council (schülerrat) serves as the overarching body representing all students and proposing initiatives for the school conference. Membership includes class and grade level speakers, along with their deputies, and additional representatives elected for more significant grade levels. The council also selects a chairperson and deputies, with re-election processes upon student assembly request. Student assemblies, convened by the student council, provide platforms for communicating important school matters and seeking student input. These assemblies occur twice a school year during class time, with similar rules applicable to class or grade-level assemblies.

In the state of Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony), according to the 1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023, class representatives and elected student speakers form the student council (Schülerrat). It plays a crucial role in facilitating student participation in school governance. The student council elects members to various school committees and represents student interests in discussions and decision-making processes affecting their education and school environment. This council ensures that students have a say in the policies and practices that impact their school life. Furthermore, the act emphasizes the need for equal representation in all student representative offices, ensuring that both genders and international students are adequately represented.

In the state of Saxony-Anhalt, according to the 2018 School Law (Schulgesetz), the student council is formed by the class representatives (Klassensprecher) and the student spokesperson (Schülersprecher), whom the students elect. This body elects its deputies and the student representatives for the school conference. The student council has the right to make decisions and submit proposals to the school conference, which must consider these proposals. It ensures student participation in school governance, represents student interests, and fosters communication between the student body, teachers, and school administration.

In the state of Saxony, according to the 2018 School Law (Sächsisches Schulgesetz), amended in 2023, starting from grade 5, students in each class elect a class representative and a deputy immediately after the beginning of the school year. These class representatives advocate for their classmates' interests in all school-related and educational matters. The elected class representatives collectively form the school's student council, which serves as the official body representing the students' interests to the school administration and supervisory authorities. The student council has the right to access information and lodge complaints with the school principal. It must be allowed to provide input on resolutions by school conferences that are fundamentally significant to the school's educational and teaching strategies. Additionally, it elects a chairman, a student representative, and a deputy from the entire student body, ensuring organized and effective student representation. In schools where the council is absent, parent representatives replace the student representatives. The student councils are also formed at the district and state levels.

In the state of Schleswig-Holstein, according to the 2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024, The student council is the elected body representing students' interests within the school. It includes class representatives, a school-wide student council, and a student spokesperson. The student council is integral to school life, participating in decision-making processes, organizing cultural, social, and sports activities, and addressing students' concerns with the school administration and teachers. It also has a role in promoting political education among students. Student representatives are elected annually and may assist their peers in dealing with disciplinary issues and other administrative matters.

In the state of Thuringia, according to the 2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021, the student council (Schülervertretung) actively empowers students to participate in school life and decision-making. It includes class and school-wide student representatives, with the right to participate in school governance issues, support student interests, organize events, and address grievances. The council is consulted on key school policies and decisions, and it has the right to be informed and heard and to make proposals, ensuring that the student's voices are integral to the school's administration.

4. Governance

4.1. Autonomy of school leaders

Autonomy and authority granted to school principals vary in states.

In the state of Bavaria, according to the 2000 Law on Education and Training (BayEUG), amended in 2023, the school principal is authorized to delegate specific instructional responsibilities to teachers, aligning with legal and administrative guidelines. The school principal is authorized to implement teacher conference decisions but may contest those conflicting with regulations, initiating further discussion or involving the school supervisory authority. The school principal holds the authority to restrict the dissemination of materials on school grounds, including the potential prohibition of publications like the school newspaper if it operates as a school-sanctioned entity under student co-responsibility.

In the state of Berlin, according to the 2004 School Law (Schulgesetz - SchulG), amended in 2023, the school principal is authorized to assess prospective students' German language proficiency during admissions and determine support for students with special educational needs. They are also authorized to handle unexplained absences or exam refusals in consultation with the school authority and have the authority to regulate the school newspaper's content and admission of guest students. Additionally, the school principal may authorize staff to process data off-site, ensuring compliance with data protection regulations under the oversight of the Berlin Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information.

In the state of Brandenburg, according to the 2002 amended in 2024, the state school authority is authorized to make financial distribution decisions in schools. Furthermore, the authority also decides on extracurricular activities/offers in schools.

In the state of Hessen, according to the 2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023, school principals have the authority to independently develop and implement pedagogical concepts and plan and organize instruction in line with the school's educational and upbringing mission. In terms of budget formulation and allocation, principals, in coordination with the school conference and other relevant bodies, are involved in managing the school's budget, which includes making decisions about allocating financial resources for various projects and operational needs. Furthermore, school principals decide about hiring and dismissing teaching staff within the framework of the school's operational concept and in alignment with the broader goals of the school system. This includes the ability to appoint teaching staff based on the school's needs and strategic objectives.

In the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, according to the 2010 School Act (Schulgesetz - SchulG M-V), amended in 2023, school principals are authorized to tailor pedagogical methods, introduce innovative teaching methods and ensure that the curriculum is delivered to maximize student engagement and learning outcomes.

In school financial matters, school principals are involved in budgeting and providing input on financial needs and priorities based on the school's educational goals and operational requirements. While they may not have unilateral control over the entire budget, principals work closely with school authorities and financial departments to ensure that resources are allocated effectively to support teaching and learning activities. This collaborative approach helps address the school's specific needs, such as funding for special programs, infrastructure improvements, and educational materials.

The authority to hire and dismiss teachers is somewhat shared and regulated. While school principals play a crucial role in the selection process of teachers, final hiring decisions often require approval from higher educational authorities or school boards. Principals can make recommendations based on their assessments of candidates' qualifications and fit for the school environment. However, dismissing teachers typically involves a more structured process, including evaluations and adherence to employment laws and regulations, ensuring that decisions are fair and justified. School principals may initiate the dismissal process but must follow the legal frameworks and obtain necessary approvals.

Furthermore, in urgent matters that cannot be delayed, the school principal can make decisions alone, which must be subsequently approved by the school conference.

In the state of Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony), according to the 1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023, Regarding pedagogical approaches, school principals have the authority to decide on all matters not explicitly assigned to other school bodies, such as conferences or committees. They are responsible for ensuring the implementation of teaching plans and maintaining the educational standards set forth by the curriculum.

Regarding hiring and dismissing teachers, the school principals have substantial involvement in the process. While the state is responsible for advertising and filling teaching positions, the principals, in consultation with the school board, can influence decisions by providing recommendations and participating in the selection process. They have the authority to make personnel decisions, including the allocation and development of staff, and can take necessary actions in urgent cases concerning the employment of teachers. However, final decisions on dismissal involve consultation with the school authority and adherence to legal regulations. When formulating and allocating school budgets, school principals are tasked with creating annual budget plans and managing the allocated funds. They are responsible for the financial administration of the school, which includes planning the use of budgetary resources and reporting on expenditures to the school board.

Furthermore, school principals have the authority to intervene if a decision by the school conference or any committee is deemed to violate legal or administrative provisions or established pedagogical principles or is based on incorrect factual premises. In such instances, the principal can object within three days, prompting a re-evaluation of the decision by the concerned body. If the body upholds its decision, the principal must seek a ruling from the school authority, with the objection and subsequent decision having a suspensive effect.

In the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), according to the 2005 School Law, the school principal plays a crucial role in school administration, wielding significant autonomy within the framework established by the school authority. They make critical decisions regarding student admissions, adhering to guidelines set by the school authority, and may temporarily admit students as guests, aligning with overall school objectives. In exceptional circumstances, such as admitting students with special needs, the principal, in coordination with the school authority, may limit class sizes, balancing individual needs with broader educational goals. They also have the authority to exclude students whose presence poses safety risks, ensuring the well-being of all.

Within labour laws and available resources, the principal can decide on fixed-term contracts for teaching staff and oversee educational initiatives. Collaborating with the teachers' conference, they determine teacher training initiatives, maintaining ultimate responsibility for school management. The principal delegates administrative tasks to teachers, retaining accountability for school operations and compliance with regulations. They address any deviations from protocols promptly.

Additionally, the principal prepares the annual school budget and manages the school's allocated financial resources. They can accept donations, ensuring alignment with the school's mission and collaborating with the school conference and authority for decisions, highlighting their role in managing the school's financial and reputational interests.

In the state of Rhineland-Palatinate, according to the 2008 School regulations for public primary schools (Schulordnung für die öffentlichen Grundschulen), amended in 2019, the school principal, in collaboration with the school doctor, makes the final decision regarding the admission of early-registered children to the school. If a child's application is denied, the school principal will provide the parents with a written explanation of the reasons for the decision. Furthermore, the school principal, in agreement with the school parents' council and after consulting the entire conference, has the authority to adjust the daily length of stay for children and makes decisions regarding school-wide collections involving money, materials, or supplies from students and parents.

Furthermore, according to the 2009 School regulations for public secondary schools (Übergreifende Schulordnung), amended in 2021, the school principal is authorized to determine a teacher responsible for carrying out the re-examination process.

In the state of Saarland, according to the 1966 Compulsory Schooling Law (Schulpflichtgesetz), amended in 2021, the school principal is the primary authority in determining the type and extent of support measures for children with developmental disabilities. This decision is made following a comprehensive consultation with the child's legal guardians, considering the school's organizational and personnel resources. In exercising this authority, the school principal must consider the assessments and recommendations provided by a school doctor or official doctor, a school psychologist, and, if necessary, the relevant support centre. The school principal also mandates an additional year of compulsory schooling for students required to attend a special school or receive special education appropriate to their needs. This decision is made following a consultation with the student's legal guardians. Furthermore, the legal guardians have the right to request an extension of the compulsory schooling period by another school year, which the principal may grant based on the specific circumstances and needs of the student.

In the state of Saxony-Anhalt, according to the 2018 School Law (Schulgesetz), school principals have the authority to lead the development and implementation of pedagogical concepts within their schools. They are also authorized to manage the financial resources allocated to their schools. They administer the funds the school authority provides, ensuring they are used effectively to support the school's educational mission. This includes the right to establish school bank accounts in the state's name, offering further financial autonomy. Furthermore, they have the authority to make urgent decisions regarding school management and administration without prior consultation with the relevant conference but must inform the conference immediately afterwards. They must also oppose any conference decision that contravenes legal or administrative regulations or recognized educational principles within three days and seek a ruling from the school authority if the conference upholds its decision.

In the state of Schleswig-Holstein, according to the 2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024, school principals are authorized to manage financial resources used for the school and the resources allocated by the school authority and the state. They further decide on a significant change in the use of the school buildings and facilities in consultation with the school authority. School principals are not the only authority to hire and dismiss teachers. However, they are required to participate in the selection of teachers and other staff working at the school.

In the state of Thuringia, according to the 2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021, school principals support pedagogical activities but do not unilaterally dictate pedagogical approaches. They play a significant role in hiring and dismissing teachers within a collaborative framework. However, the appointment and dismissal decisions are made in consultation with the responsible Ministry and school authorities, indicating that while the principal has input, the final decisions are made at a higher administrative level.

Furthermore, they exercise considerable authority to formulate and allocate school budgets. Each school manages its school account, which is used for school-related financial transactions, including collecting and managing funds for school events and public funds. The Ministry of Education establishes detailed regulations for managing these accounts in collaboration with the finance and municipal authorities. The principal thus plays a central role in ensuring funds are allocated appropriately for educational and operational needs.

4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders

The jurisdiction of the Länder to conduct quality assurance originates from their exercise of state sovereignty as delineated in the 1949 Basic Law (Grundgesetz), which stipulates that the Länder retains comprehensive quality assurance of the education system, including assessment of school principals.

Some states explicitly detail the procedures to carry out school principals' assessments at different educational levels. For example, in the state of Berlin, according to the 2004 School Law (Schulgesetz - SchulG), amended in 2023, all school employees are obliged to take part in tests and surveys. Furthermore, the school supervisory authority evaluates the overall school management carried out by school principals.

In the state of Bremen, in early childhood care and education (ECCE), according to the 2000 Law on the Support of Children in Day Facilities and Day Care (Bremisches Tageseinrichtungs- und Kindertagespflegegesetz - BremKTG), amended in 2019, the municipality organizes model tests (modellversuche) for the required qualifications of the staff of the ECCE centres.

In the state of Hamburg, according to the 2004 Childcare Act (KibeG), amended in 2022, the professional quality of work of education pedagogical specialists are evaluated based on a quality development agreement.

In the state of Hessen, according to the 2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023, school principals are required to participate in external evaluations conducted by school supervisory authorities. These evaluations are based on the 2021 Hessian Reference Framework for School Quality (Hessische Referenzrahmen Schulqualität) and aim to ensure high education standards.

In the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, according to the 2010 School Act (Schulgesetz - SchulG M-V), amended in 2023, the assessment of school principals involves both internal and external evaluation processes. Internally, principals are evaluated based on their leadership performance, implementation of educational programs, and the overall academic outcomes of the school. These evaluations often include feedback from teachers, students, and parents to provide a comprehensive view of the principal's effectiveness. Externally, school authorities conduct formal assessments to ensure compliance with state educational policies and goals. These assessments might include site visits, performance reviews, and school data analysis, such as student performance metrics and school improvement plans.

In the state of Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony), according to the 1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023, school principals' performance is evaluated through regular school inspections conducted by an agency subordinate to the highest school authority. This agency assesses the quality of individual schools based on a standardized quality profile, ensuring that the school adheres to its educational and operational mandates.

In the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), in the early childhood care and education (ECCE), the 2019 Children’s Education Act (KiBiZ) mandates annual surveys to assess various aspects of daycare facilities, including facility occupancy rates, management hours, and the allocation of educational staff to different group areas within the facility. These surveys should provide detailed breakdowns of management hours per facility and pedagogical group areas, specifying the number of hours allocated to specialist and supplementary staff and staff hours dedicated to training and additional support for children with disabilities or impending disabilities. Additionally, the surveys should determine the annual training hours required for childcare workers to maintain high-quality standards of care and education.

In the state of Saxony-Anhalt, according to the 2018 School Law (Schulgesetz), school principals are evaluated based on their adherence to the school's legal and administrative framework and their effectiveness in implementing its educational objectives. They must report regularly on the implementation and progress of the school program to the school authority.

In the state of Schleswig-Holstein, in early childhood education and care (ECCE) centres, according to the 2019 Child Daycare Act (Kindertagesförderungsgesetz (KiTaG)), amended in 2024, assessment of pedagogical specialists (managers) involves continuous quality management procedures. Each early childhood care and education (ECCE) centre is required to implement a quality management system, which includes appointing a qualified person responsible for quality development. Additionally, daycare centres must engage in regular pedagogical consultations. These consultations are conducted by professionals with at least five years of experience in the pedagogical field, including two years in a daycare setting, ensuring that the advice and assessments provided are grounded in substantial practical experience.

In schools, according to the 2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024, school principals are also required to submit an annual report to the school conference. This report must detail the implementation of the school program, the use of funds provided by the school sponsor and the state, and the management of allocated positions and resources. This mechanism ensures transparency and provides a structured way to assess the principal's performance in alignment with the school's goals and manage resources effectively.

In the state of Thuringia, according to the 2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021, school principals' performance is regularly evaluated through internal and external assessments. Internal evaluations are conducted by the school, utilizing tools and frameworks provided by the Ministry of Education. These evaluations focus on the quality of school management, educational outcomes, and adherence to legal and administrative guidelines. The results are reported to the school conference and authority, ensuring transparency and collaborative improvement efforts. Additionally, principals are subject to external evaluations performed by expert teams appointed by the Ministry of Education. These teams typically consist of specially trained teachers who assess the school's and the principal's performance. The evaluation process includes a review of pedagogical practices, school administration, and overall educational effectiveness.

4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders

Teacher assessment by school principals varies in states.

In the state of Berlin, according to the 2004 School Law (Schulgesetz - SchulG), amended in 2023, the school principal is responsible overall internal evaluation, which also extends to evaluating teaching activities. Furthermore, the school principal is authorized to official assessments and report on the probation of the school’s staff.

In the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), according to the 2005 School Law, school principals conduct performance evaluations for school staff during the probationary period; before promotion to the first level of career advancement (unless it's a leadership position); before granting leave for international school service (excluding overseas functional positions), and for tasks related to development cooperation, or similar assignments; and before assignment to university service.

In the state of Hamburg, according to the 1997 School Act (HmbSG), amended in 2024, the school principal carries out teacher assessments as part of their duties. They oversee the proper conduct of teaching and educational activities. Additionally, they perform classroom observations and evaluate teachers' performance, ensuring adherence to professional responsibilities and educational standards.

In the state of Hessen, according to the 2022 School Act (HSchG), amended in 2023, School principals are responsible for the systematic quality development of their school, which involves continuous internal evaluations. These internal evaluations include classroom observations to evaluate teaching. Furthermore, school principals advise teachers to ensure compliance with legal and administrative standards.

In the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, according to the 2010 School Act (Schulgesetz - SchulG M-V), amended in 2023, through classroom observations, principals assess teaching practices, classroom management, and student engagement. During these observations, principals look for adherence to the curriculum, effective instructional strategies, and the ability to meet diverse student needs. Post-observation conferences are held to discuss the findings, provide feedback, and collaboratively set goals for improvement. Additionally, principals review various forms of teacher documentation, such as lesson plans, student assessments, and professional development records.

In the state of Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony), according to the 1998 Schools Act (NSchG), amended in 2023, school principals are expected to oversee and support teachers in their instructional duties and ensure that educational objectives are met through appropriate pedagogical strategies.

In the state of Rhineland-Palatinate, according to the 2009 School regulations for public secondary schools (Übergreifende Schulordnung), amended in 2021, the school principal does not directly carry out the assessment, but the school principal provides information about teaching and teachers‘ data processing devices for official evaluation purposes.

In the state of Saxony-Anhalt, according to the 2018 School Law (Schulgesetz), acting as the direct superior of the teaching staff, pedagogical employees, and support staff, the school principal observes the classroom and evaluates teaching performance.

In the state of Saxony, according to the 2018 School Law (Sächsisches Schulgesetz), amended in 2023, the school principal is authorized to make classroom observations and official assessments of teachers for the school supervisory authority.

In the state of Schleswig-Holstein, according to the 2007 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2024, school principals are authorized to instruct the teachers and the school authority's administrative and support staff. They ensure that the teachers work together on all educational issues. Furthermore, they decide on further training planning within the framework of the principles by the teachers' conference.

In the state of Thuringia, according to the 2003 School Act (Schulgesetz), amended in 2021, school principals evaluate teachers’ performance by observing their classes and providing feedback.

Última modificación:

Jue, 17/10/2024 - 12:43