School leadership
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
2.2. Selection and working conditions
2.3. Leadership preparation and training
3. Teachers, parents and students
3.1. School management committees and boards
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
1. Terminology
The 2002 Education and Training Policy and Its Implementation uses the term “school principals”.
The 2012 Ethiopian National Professional Standards Framework for School Supervisors distinguishes between “school supervisors” and “principals”. The document does not explicitly define either term, but states that school supervisors' responsibilities include monitoring compliance and providing feedback; supporting effective teaching and learning processes; and evaluating and liaising at schools to achieve a unified school system. School supervisors guide and support school principals in various aspects of schoolleadership butt are not school-based leaders.
The 2013 Directive: Professional Licensing and Renewal for Teachers and School Leaders No.83 states that a principal, referred to as “ርዕሰመምህር,” is responsible for overseeing the management of educational institutions. Additionally, it defines “school leaders” generally as professionals who serve as school principals or supervisors.
2. School principals
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
Competency standards and leadership frameworks and guidelines
The 2013 Ethiopian Professional Standards for Principals, by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia's Ministry of Education, outlines the competencies required for effective school leadership. The document includes a detailed introduction, definitions of key terms, and a comprehensive framework divided into three principal domains and associated competencies. It provides standards for different levels of principal performance along with detailed units of competence, evidence guides, sources, and assessment methods. The aim is to establish a clear benchmark for principals, ensuring they possess the necessary skills and knowledge to lead schools effectively and meet educational objectives.
The 2013 Ethiopian Professional Standards for Principals reflect the expectations outlined in the National General Education Inspection Framework. These standards serve as a framework for self-assessment, progress tracking, and formal evaluation with peers and mentors, supporting comprehensive leadership development. They include five key competencies, each subdivided into observable 'sub-competencies' that detail specific actions and behaviors. Each sub-competency is organized into five levels of leadership competence: Beginner Leader, Developing Leader, Competent Leader, Leader of Learning, and Peer Leader. Each level is accompanied by statements describing observable evidence related to competency.
Roles
Setting expectations/objectives: The 2013 Ethiopian Professional Standards for Principals outline that a principal, in collaboration with others, is responsible for evaluating the school's performance to identify priorities for continuous improvement and raising standards. This includes developing school rules, regulations, and practices, ensuring that resources are used efficiently and effectively to meet the school's goals, and overseeing the day-to-day management, organization, and administration of the school.
Developing teaching and learning: The 2013 Ethiopian Professional Standards for Principals highlight that principals are key to instructional leadership by distributing responsibilities to ensure quality and coherence in curriculum, materials, pedagogy, and assessment. They continuously assess and improve instructional practices through collaboration, staying informed about current research and educational policies. Principals use this knowledge to enhance educational opportunities and involve the entire school community in decision-making and capacity-building.
Promoting collaboration: The 2013 Ethiopian Professional Standards for Principals emphasize that principals should collaboratively develop and communicate a shared vision, keeping it central to all stakeholders. They are responsible for designing systematic methods to collect and analyze data on school progress, setting measurable goals, and reinforcing staff contributions. Principals work with community groups and parents to identify resources and solutions that enhance student achievement and involve them in creating new resources. They assess the impact of professional development on various levels and build strong relationships across the school community to foster a positive learning environment and improve outcomes for all students.
Supporting staff development: The 2013 Ethiopian Professional Standards for Principals emphasize that principals should identify and prioritize professional development needs. They must systematically determine learning and development needs based on organizational requirements and ensure the creation and execution of a learning plan for both individuals and groups. Principals are responsible for collecting feedback on team performance, adapting strategies based on feedback, and maintaining effective staff induction and performance review procedures. They should set personal targets, define and agree on learning needs and accountabilities, and encourage self-evaluation among individuals. Additionally, principals must review school policies to empower teams, support skills assessment and learning opportunities, and build capacity while holding teams accountable for outcomes.
Acting in accordance with the ethical principles of the profession: The 2013 Ethiopian Professional Standards for Principals state that principals must “understand, uphold and model professional ethics, policies and legal codes of professional conduct”.
2.2. Selection and working conditions
Degree requirements and prior teaching experience
According to the 2022-2023 Academic Year Education Statistics Annual Abstract, school leaders and supervisors must have a minimum qualification of a Bachelor's degree for Primary and Middle levels and a Master's degree for Secondary level positions. It is worth noting that this only applies to Addis Ababa.
The 2013 Directive: Professional Licensing and Renewal for Teachers and School Leaders No.83 outlines the process for assessing professional qualifications for teachers, principals, and supervisors. This process includes registration, evaluation criteria, and the issuance of professional license certificates. It involves both written and practical assessments, with a minimum average score of 70% required for certification. New teachers are evaluated solely through written exams while existing educators are assessed based on their specific education type and language proficiency. Those who do not meet the required scores may undergo re-evaluation, with possible consequences for repeated failures. Advanced professional licenses can be pursued after one year of tenure, and successful candidates receive qualification certificates. Licenses may be revoked if professionals are dismissed due to incompetence or other reasons (art.2.4).
Qualifications for teachers and school principals vary based on their professional license type. An Initial Professional License requires a bachelor's degree from a recognized institution and experience as a graduate level I and II or as a lecturer with two years of teacher training. A Full Professional License is granted to those who have worked with their Initial Professional License or have completed a master’s or doctorate degree along with professional teacher training. The Permanent Workers Permit, the highest certification, requires candidates to hold a Full Professional License (art.2).
In Addis Ababa, the 2012 Addis Ababa City School Principals Instructional Implementation Guide No.20 specifies that candidates for school principal positions must meet several qualifications to be eligible for the competitive selection process. Candidates need to hold a second degree in education planning and management, education leadership and management, school leadership, education leadership, or teaching from a recognized higher education institution. They must also have at least five years of teaching experience in a secondary school, with prior roles as a teacher, principal, or vice principal. Additionally, candidates must have performance evaluations from 2010, 2011, and 2012, with a consecutive four-year average score of 85% or above. For schools in Addis Ababa where education is conducted in Afan Oromo, candidates must demonstrate proficiency in the language through a validated examination assessing their skills in listening, speaking, reading, and writing (art.10).
Appointment decision
The 2013 Directive: Professional Licensing and Renewal for Teachers and School Leaders No.83 states that the Directorate of Professional Licensing and Development is responsible for overseeing professional licensing at the federal level, including the certification of teachers, principals, and supervisors (art.3.1, 3.2). At the regional or city level, a regional council, led by the head of the regional education office or a designated representative, manages the professional licensing system for these roles (art.3.1).
In Addis Ababa, the 2012 Addis Ababa City School Principals Instructional Implementation Guide No.20 details a merit-based competition process for school principal and vice-principal positions. Announcements for these roles are posted in schools, district offices, and on the district website, with a ten-day application period. For secondary school positions, the competition is managed locally within the district city, while primary school positions are overseen by the district education office. The selection process is handled by a Competition Committee of seven members and one voting secretary, including representatives from education offices, human resource departments, and teachers' associations. This committee manages registrations, evaluates candidates, ensures confidentiality, and makes decisions. Committee decisions are subject to Chief Justice approval, and in the case of a tie, the collector's vote is decisive. The committee also verifies candidates' qualifications and addresses any conflicts of interest to ensure a fair and transparent process.
Employment equity measures
The 2022-2023 Academic Year Education Statistics Annual Abstract states that “from the total number of school leaders, females constitute only 6.7% in Primary and Middle and 7.8% in Secondary schools”.
The 2023 Strategic Plan for Female School Leaders outlines six key goals to boost women's representation in leadership roles. These goals are strengthening systems for accountability to ensure leadership commitment to gender policies; enhancing education policies to attract and retain female leaders; increasing the number of qualified and motivated female teachers in leadership positions; ensuring gender-sensitive budget allocations; raising community awareness about equal opportunities for women; and creating safe environments for female educators and leaders.
In Addis Ababa, the 2012 Addis Ababa City School Principals Instructional Implementation Guide No.20 supports increasing female representation in principal and vice principal roles. It stipulates that if female candidates score equally in the competition, they will be given priority. Additionally, if female candidates tie with candidates who have disabilities, the latter will be prioritized (art.12).
Working conditions
The 2013 Guideline for the Assignment of Teachers, Principals and Supervisor Positions No.499 outlines school leadership levels based on experience and education. Implementation Guideline No. 2/2012 (2020) for Teachers, Principals and Supervisors Job Level Assignment prescribes that the job level of primary school principals and deputy principals shall be XVII and XVI, respectively. Similarly, the document stipulates that the job levels of secondary school principals and deputy principals are XVIII and XVII. The Job Grading and Evaluation Salary Scale Implementation Guideline Number 1/2012 (2019) associates job levels XVI, XVII and XVIII with salary scales of 11,305, 12,579 and 13,926 Birr respectively. This means that the salaries of primary school principals and deputy principals are 12,579 and 11,305. Similarly, the salaries of secondary school principals and deputy principals are 13,926 and 12,579 Birr respectively. The equivalent conversion of the salary scales of 11,305, 12,579 and 13,926 Birr into Dollar with the exchange rate of one dollar to 116 Birr at the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia at the time of writing this profile are about 97.45, 108.44 and 120.052 Dollar respectively. The government has recently announced a certain type of salary increase for government employees to be implemented from the beginning of the Ethiopian New Year 2017 (September 11, 2024) and these salary scales are subject to change when this change comes into effect.
In Addis Ababa, according to the 2013 Addis Ababa City Administration of Teachers, Principals, Deputy Principals Directive No. 69, a temporary committee, established by supervisors at each level, is responsible for overseeing the transfer of teachers, principals, deputy principals, and supervisors within the education office, district city, and district education office.
2.3. Leadership preparation and training
Pre-service training
The 2013 Directive: Professional Licensing and Renewal for Teachers and School Leaders No.83specifies that the Initial Professional License (የመጀመሪያሙያፍቃድ) is valid for two years and is granted to individuals holding a qualification equivalent to a bachelor’s degree (art.2). The2021-2025 Education Sector Development Plan VI (ESDP VI) emphasizes the importance of training on the revised curriculum through both in-service and pre-service programs. The goal is to ensure that educators are well-prepared to implement the updated curriculum effectively.
Induction and in-service training
The 2013 Directive: Professional Licensing and Renewal for Teachers and School Leaders No.83 outlines the licensing process for educators. After receiving the Initial Professional License, individuals can pursue two main types of further licenses. The Full Professional License (ሙለየሙያፍቃዴ), valid for five years, is awarded upon meeting additional qualifications. The highest level, the Permanent Work Permit (ቋሚየሙያፍቃድ), requires meeting further criteria and is renewable every five years for teachers, principals, and supervisors holding it (art.2.3.4).
The 2021-2025 Education Sector Development Plan VI (ESDP VI) focuses on improving education by making training mandatory for school principals nationwide. It aims to build principals' capacity to implement the revised curriculum, which highlights positive values and unity in diversity. The plan also includes training principals in managing diverse classrooms effectively, promoting a positive learning environment, and fostering student interaction.
3. Teachers, parents and students
3.1. School management committees and boards
The 2010 School Improvement Programme (SIP) outlines the School Improvement Committee's (SIC) critical role in enhancing school performance. Directors of primary and secondary schools are required to formally review their SIC's performance, focusing on member commitment, attendance, and contributions to student outcomes. This review informs decisions about continued membership and may lead to inviting new members to ensure fresh perspectives and diverse representation from school staff, PTA members, parents, and community leaders, with attention to gender balance. The SIC is tasked with attending meetings, advising, developing strategic plans, mobilizing resources, and evaluating progress. Directors are responsible for finalizing SIC membership and launching the school improvement programme according to the school's readiness and operational schedule.
3.2. Middle leaders
The 2002 Educational Leadership Organization, Community Participation and Finance Guideline mandates teacher participation in various middle leadership structures in schools. For example, it states that teachers "participate in various school committees as members and advisors to strengthen the educational activities conducted in the school" (p.41). Middle leadership positions such as head of unit, head of department, member of curriculum committee, coordinator of various clubs, and coordinator of pedagogical center are mentioned in the documents where such participation of teachers is expected.
3.3. Parents
The 2018 School Grants Guidelines GEQIP-II and the 2010 School Improvement Programme (SIP) refer to Parent Teacher Associations (PTAs). The 2010 School Improvement Programme (SIP) references the establishment of School Improvement Committees, and states that it is important that there are at least four parents on the committee.
3.4. Students
The Ministry of Education 2023 (2015 E.C) Fiscal Year Plan Implementation Report (2023) states that "all schools have PSTA, while those that are fruitful and organized account for 84%" (p.31). PSTA existence, or Parents, Teachers and Students Association, indicates that students are involved in such bodies that affect the management of schools.
4. Governance
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
No information has been found on the authority/autonomy of school principals in choosing pedagogical approaches, hiring/dismissing teachers or allocating budgets.
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
According to the 2013 School Inspection Guide No. 82, the General Education Inspection Directorate of the Ministry of National Education can perform full, partial, continuous, or specific inspections as needed. Collaborating with zonal and district education offices, it oversees a comprehensive inspection system for all educational institutions across Ethiopia, including pre-schools, primary, secondary, preparatory schools, alternative education centers, and both public and private institutions. Schools are inspected at least once every three years by independent inspectors using objective and consistent data, focusing on institutional results rather than individual performance. Upon arrival, inspectors meet with school leaders to outline the inspection scope and gather evidence based on established standards. The inspection process includes regular consultations with the principal and the collection of information to make informed judgments. After the inspection, the team presents their findings and recommendations for school improvement to the principal and relevant leaders.
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
The 2013 School Inspection Guide No. 82 outlines that during inspections, teachers are assessed through direct observation of their teaching and learning activities. Given the challenge of observing every class simultaneously, the inspection team selects specific teachers and classes for observation. These observations are conducted discreetly to avoid disrupting the classroom environment, with advanced scheduling for group observations to minimize interference with teaching (art.10.2.3).
The Educational Leadership Organization, Community Participation and Finance Guideline (2002) states that students and the PSTA will evaluate teachers based on the proportion of points allocated to them. Principals are primarily responsible for the annual performance evaluation of teachers. They also observe classrooms and provide feedback and assessment to teachers.
This profile was reviewed by Tesfaye Gemechu Gurmu, Ph.D. student in Educational Policy Leadership at Addis Ababa University and Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership and Management at Ambo University, Ethiopia.
