School leadership
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
2.2. Selection and working conditions
2.3. Leadership preparation and training
3. Teachers, parents and students
3.1. School management committees and boards
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
1. Terminology
The 2010 Free Primary Education Act defines a head teacher as a ‘head of a public primary school’. The 1982 Teaching Service Act and 1983 Teaching Service Regulations refer to a headmaster, which includes a ‘headmistress or principal’ and a ‘manager’, defined as ‘any person or body responsible for the management of a school and includes the National Education Board established under the 1981 Education Act’. The teaching service is defined as ‘the service under the Government of the Kingdom Swaziland and includes heads and principals in all teachers’ colleges, all secondary and primary schools’.
2. School principals
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
Competency standards and leadership frameworks and guidelines
In 2011, the Ministry of Education and Training, in collaboration with UNICEF, developed a Practical Guide for Head Teachers based on the Inqaba concept, which includes standards and indicators for the quality of teaching and learning, a definition of the roles of head teachers, and a school self-assessment tool. The standards and indicators outlined in the guide are nationally or internationally acceptable quantities or qualities of service or material to be provided or achieved at the school level. For a school to be an Inqaba it has to meet some basic standards, which are clearly stated and progressively move towards achieving the indicators of excellence. Inqaba is a rights-based concept that promotes child-friendly education systems and schools.
The roles and duties of head teachers are additionally outlined in several national laws, policies and plans developed by the Ministry of Education and Training such as the 2018/19 – 2020/21 National Education and Training Sector Improvement Programme (NETIP) II and the 1983 Teaching Service Regulations.
Roles
Setting expectations/objectives: According to the 2011 Practical Guide for Head Teachers, head teachers are responsible for developing the school development plan, undertaking the school self-assessment process, and keeping accurate data and a systematic record management system. The head teacher must complete a school assessment form by the end of second term which indicates priorities of the school development plan to be developed and submitted by the end of third term. The school development plan is developed in consultation with teachers, parents, students, and the school committee. The final school development plan is shared with the regional education office and includes the school budget.
The 2022-34 Education Sector Strategic Plan aims to strengthen evidence-based planning and programme design, based on key data on teachers and head teachers.
Developing teaching and learning: The 2011 Practical Guide for Head Teachers describes standards on the quality of teaching and learning at the school which the head teacher is responsible for. The head teacher is required to regularly monitor the teaching and learning process as prescribed by the Ministry of Education and Training. This includes ensuring learning and teaching material is available in the school; ensuring that learners have appropriate material; ensuring that every child is appropriately provided with a desk and a chair; ensuring that the classroom is conducive for learning; and organising training for sharing child-centred methods and material at least once a year. The head teacher is responsible for checking classrooms at least once a month to ensure that these standards are being met.
According to the 2018 National Curriculum Framework for General Education, school management (including head teachers) must ensure that the entire curriculum is taught and that the overall time allocated to each subject is adhered to. Head teachers and education advisers also play an important part in monitoring the classroom performance of teachers. The 2021 Stakeholder Engagement Plan states that head teachers are responsible for implementing curriculum changes. The 2018/19 – 2020/21 National Education and Training Sector Improvement Programme (NETIP) II further states that head teachers are expected to continuously encourage teachers to use more learner-centred methods and standardised tools for the supervision of teachers and classroom practice. Finally, according to the 2019 Standards for Inclusive Education, the school leadership and management team (including head teachers) must additionally ensure that teachers are provided with sufficient time, resources and support to plan to implement lessons and programmes of the highest quality towards inclusive education for all students.
Promoting collaboration: The 2011 Practical Guide for Head Teachers strongly encourages the active and meaningful involvement of teachers, students, school committees and parents in all aspects of school development and management. An Inqaba school is anchored on strong participation and collaboration of the school committee, teachers, administration learners, parents and community. There must be an attempt to evolve cooperative and congenial working relationships with their colleagues, establishing strong partnerships between school community members (including teachers and parents). The head teacher is additionally responsible for organising school committee meetings and annual general meetings for parents and school administration. They must further organise annual general meetings for parents and school administration, and be accessible to parents and other community members who desire consultation with them on school matters or student progress.
According to the 2019 Standards for Inclusive Education, the school leadership and management team is similarly responsible for collaboratively facilitating whole-school planning by including all stakeholders (teachers, learners, parents, etc.) to participate and have an opportunity to shape plans.
Supporting staff development: The 2018/19 – 2020/21 National Education and Training Sector Improvement Programme II highlights that head teachers should give teachers regular constructive and encouraging feedback for on-the-job support. The 2019 Standards for Inclusive Education and 1999 Special Education Policy Statement additionally state that head teachers are responsible for the capacity development of teaching staff on inclusive education practices.
Acting in accordance with the ethical principles of the profession: The 2011 Practical Guide for Head Teachers describes the Teachers Code of Conduct, according to which all teachers should constantly strive to achieve and maintain the highest degree of professional competence while upholding the honour, dignity, integrity and ethical standards of the teaching profession.
The 1983 Teaching Service Regulations include provisions for the misconduct of all teachers in the teaching service (including head teachers), such as immoral conduct. The Teaching Service Commission is responsible for compiling and publishing a code of conduct and discipline binding on all persons in the Teaching Service.
Others: The 2011 Practical Guide for Head Teachers outlines several additional roles of head teachers, which include ensuring that all children (especially those with disabilities) have access to all services provided by the school; ensuring all eligible children within the school’s catchment area are enrolled; ensuring a safe and protective learning environment for all children; and ensuring the school has adequate, safe and standard infrastructure. According to the 2020 School Discipline Guidelines, the head teacher additionally has the ultimate responsibility for ensuring that positive discipline is practised in the school.
Head teachers are additionally responsible for setting school fees (1999 National Policy Statement on Education), managing school inventory (2018/19 – 2020/21 National Education and Training Sector Improvement Programme II), recommending candidates for the post of Head of Department (1983 Teaching Service Regulations); and developing inclusive cultures, policies and procedures to be adopted in the school (2019 Standards for Inclusive Education).
According to the 2018/19 – 2020/21 National Education and Training Sector Improvement Programme II, head teachers are also required to teach, which helps them better understand teachers’ challenges and experiences.
2.2. Selection and working conditions
Degree requirements and prior teaching experience
According to the Teaching Service Commission, for teachers to qualify for a head teacher position they need to have been a deputy head teacher for at least four years, have a bachelor’s degree in Secondary Education (Leadership), bachelor’s degree in Education Management, bachelor’s degree in Primary Education and bachelor’s honours degree. Teachers who have served for at least seven years in the country qualify for the position of deputy head teacher. The two positions require the same academic qualifications.
The 1982 Teaching Service Act and 1983 Teaching Service Regulations require all teachers (including head teachers) to be registered with the Teaching Service Commission and have certain minimum qualifications in order to be employed as teachers in Eswatini and be part of the teaching service.
The 2022-34 Education Sector Strategic Plan details the teachers’ career path, which may offer vertical mobility opportunities, where teachers apply and are promoted to leadership and management positions.
Appointment decision
The Teaching Service Commission is responsible for making appointments (including promotions and transfers), selection of candidates for appointment, confirmation of appointments, termination of appointments, disciplinary control and removal of public service teachers from the Teaching Service. This includes appointments of head teachers. Application for employment is sent to the Teaching Service Commission Executive Secretary, and the Commission makes the final selection. According to the 1983 Teaching Service Regulations, if a promotional post exists in the Teaching Service, including the post of head teacher and deputy head teacher, the Teaching Service Commission advertises the post and invites applicants for the post (Article 25). Qualified candidates are then invited for interviews, after which the Teaching Service Commission decides on an appointment.
Private schools manage their recruitment process.
Employment equity measures
The 2010 National Gender Policy aims to increase women’s participation in power structures and decision-making positions at different levels of governance. This includes incorporating issues of women's leadership and representation in the socialization process of girls and boys in all institutions of learning.
Working conditions
The 1982 Teaching Service Act and 1983 Teaching Service Regulations include provisions for the working conditions of all members of the teaching service (including head teachers), such as leave, pensions, retirement, and resignations. The Teaching Service Commission manages the employment of all teachers, including head teachers, who are considered civil servants. The Commission generally employs and deploys public service teachers (including head teachers) on permanent terms. Only Swazi nationals qualify to be hired in a permanent position. According to the 1983 Teaching Service Regulations, temporary teachers without appropriate qualifications are employed on contract terms not exceeding two years. In 2024/25, the Minister of Public Service aims to convert all temporary teacher posts to permanent ones.
The Teaching Service Commission makes recommendations to the Minister of Education on the terms and conditions of service and methods of ensuring improvements in general working conditions within the Teaching Service. The Commission is specifically responsible for paying the wages of all persons in the teaching profession when they are due. The law additionally states that the Commission may seek advice from existing teachers’ associations (including the existing Eswatini Association of Head Teachers) on matters affecting the teaching profession with a view on improving and promoting the conditions of service for all teachers. The Swaziland Association of Schools Administrators is a union for head teachers and deputies within the Swaziland National Association of Teachers.
The salary scale for teachers and head teachers is part of the overall pay scheme for public servants with similar qualifications, with salary scales standardized for each grade. Although teachers are managed by the Teaching Service Commission, they draw their salaries from the same pool as all other public servants. Teachers are remunerated through the Government Human Resource Management Information System in accordance with the Establishment Register and Circulars. The key determinants of a teacher or head teacher’s salary include level of academic qualification and level they will be teaching at. If a teacher is promoted to a leadership and management position, there is a significant salary increase. On average, in 2020, head teachers at the primary level received an average annual salary of about 223,412 SZL (11601.58 USD) – 251,452 SZL (13057.67 USD), while head teachers at the secondary level received 256,925 SZL (13341.87 USD) - 289,171 SZL (15016.38 USD). According to the laws of the teaching service, head teachers are additionally entitled to a subsistence allowance in the same manner and at the same rate provided in the Eswatini Government General Order as amended from time to time (Article 21).
2.3. Leadership preparation and training
Pre-service training
The 2018 National Education and Training Sector Policy aims to design and introduce a certificate programme in leadership and instructional, financial and institutional management for new head teachers, prior to their later appointment as head teachers. The policy additionally supports the development and maintenance of an effective database to ensure that there is a permanent and traceable record of head teachers who have trained in school management.
Induction and in-service training
The 2022-34 Education Sector Strategic Plan and 2022/23 – 2024/25 Multi-Year Action Plan aim to train all newly appointed head teachers and deputy head teachers on their specific roles and responsibilities with regard to leadership and management, and care and support for teaching and learning. The plans further support the monitoring and evaluation of the impact of the training with the view to incentivize those who perform well through certification. The 2018/19 – 2020/21 National Education and Training Sector Improvement Programme II further aims to provide induction training to new primary and secondary school head teachers in collaboration with the inspectorate.
The in-service training of head teachers is mentioned in several policies, frameworks and plans. The 1999 National Policy Statement on Education and the 2018 National Curriculum Framework for General Education aim to train head teachers as instructional leaders and in competency-based education. The 2018 National Education and Training Sector Policy further supports building the capacity of head teachers, deputy head teachers, guidance and counselling teachers and parents on positive discipline; providing ongoing support and managerial skills to head teachers, personnel managers, accounting officers and school committees (including financial management) to improve the quality of education in schools; and developing an effective database to ensure that there is a permanent and traceable record for all teachers and head teachers who have trained in any fixed programme.
The 2022-34 Education Sector Strategic Plan and 2022/23 – 2024/25 Multi-Year Action Plan further aim to continuously support head teachers, deputies and heads of departments on their specific roles and responsibilities with regard to leadership and management; and train them in line with the needs of a competency-based curriculum and based on the National Qualifications Framework and national standards. This includes providing relevant ‘infusion’ in-service workshops to teachers and their head teachers to capacitate them for competency-based education, conducting a needs assessment for head teachers, deputies and heads of department to inform teacher training curriculum; developing a training module for leadership and management training; and developing regional and cluster schools training schedules and programmes to ensure timely and effective training.
The 2018/19 – 2020/21 National Education and Training Sector Improvement Programme II similarly includes objectives for building the capacity of head teachers in competency-based skills, monitoring skills, school governance, feedback and reporting mechanisms. The 2019 Standards for Inclusive Education further support all leaders and managers to receive ongoing training in leadership and management of inclusive education policies and procedures.
The in-service education and training unit under the Ministry of Education and Training provides different types of training, most of which focus on supporting head teachers in different aspects of school management. The main training programmes relate to (i) management; (ii) financial management; (iii) personnel management; and (iv) organizational management. Training is provided under the EMIS department of the Ministry of Education and Training on a PIN-driven system called DHIS2 to ensure real time data capturing.
3. Teachers, parents and students
3.1. School management committees and boards
The 1981 Education Act provides for the establishment, membership, and functions of school committees. School committees are established in all schools, along with a constitution and a joint association of parents and teachers (Article 13). School committees consist of the following members— (a) one person appointed by and representing the chief of the area in which the school is situated; (b) one person appointed by and representing, in the case of a committee in Mbabane Town and Manzini Town, the Town Council of Mbabane or Manzini as the case may be; (c) the District Commissioner or his representative; (d) the grantee of the school; and (e) the headmaster of the school. All members are elected in accordance with the constitution of the committee by the parents of the students at the school (Article 14).
The functions of the committee are to look after the affairs of the school and advise the District Education Advisory Board on any matter relating to the management or conduct of the school (Article 15).
The 2018 National Education and Training Sector Policy aims to improve the management of primary schools by upgrading and enhancing the competence of elected school committees.
3.2. Middle leaders
The roles and training of middle leaders, including senior teachers (at the primary level) and heads of department (at the secondary level) are mentioned in several documents, including the 1983 Teaching Service Regulations, 2018 National Education and Training Sector Policy, and 2022-34 Education Sector Strategic Plan. The 2022/23 – 2024/25 Multi-Year Action Plan aims to train and continuously support heads of department (HoDs) on their specific roles and responsibilities regarding leadership and management.
3.3. Parents
According to the 1981 Education Act, every school is required to establish a Parents-Teachers’ Association (Article 13). The 1999 National Policy Statement on Education states that the role of the Parents-Teachers’ Association is to reflect the interest of all stakeholders and the broader community served by the school.
The 2011 Practical Guide for Head Teachers outlines the roles of parents and community members in school activities. This includes actively participating in school development projects and resource mobilisation; monitoring the quality of education; and taking keen interest in the education of their children.
3.4. Students
The 2018 National Education and Training Sector Policy aims to involve students in annual school self-evaluations. However, there are no provisions in laws, policies, strategies or frameworks on the composition of student councils in schools.
4. Governance
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
According to the 1983 Teaching Service Regulations, the Teaching Service Commission makes the final decision on the appointment, suspension and dismissal of teachers. School budgets are included in the school development plan, prepared by the head teacher in consultation with the school committee, as described in the 2011 Practical Guide for Head Teachers. The head teacher is specifically responsible for managing humane, material and financial resources in the school. The 2011 guide additionally states that the head teacher creates a child-friendly teaching and learning environment that uses child-centred teaching and learning methodologies, which are shared at the school and cluster levels. The national curriculum, as well as core subjects and electives, are set at the national level.
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
According to the 2018 National Education and Training Sector Policy, all primary and secondary school head teachers should be placed on the performance management system. The 2022/23 – 2024/25 Multi-Year Action Plan aims to liaise with the Ministry of Public Service for the establishment of a performance management system and develop a policy that addresses the performance management of all personnel, managed jointly with the Ministry of Public Service. Achievement and progress will be assessed against a set of defined goals or standards that specify the characteristics of quality teaching and learning.
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
According to the 1983 Teaching Service Regulations, school managers submit reports on teacher performance to the Teaching Service Commission (Article 8). The performance appraisal of teachers by head teachers is similarly highlighted in the 2022/23 – 2024/25 Multi-Year Action Plan.
This profile was reviewed by Professor Ibiwumi Alad of the University of Eswatini.
