School leadership
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
2.2. Selection and working conditions
2.3. Leadership preparation and training
3. Teachers, parents and students
3.1. School management committees and boards
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
1. Terminology
The 1971 Education Act of Nepal uses the term ‘headmaster’ to denote the head of the school. The 2002 Education Rules state that there shall be a headmaster in each school to function as an academic and administrative chief of the school.
As per the 2018 Act Relating to Compulsory and Free Education, 2075, the head teacher is defined as the “executive chief of a school who fulfils managerial and administrative responsibilities by taking up leadership of the school, and this also includes the principal or other person who exercises the executive authority, who has the major responsibility of the management of the school or teaching institute.”
However, recent policies and documents, such as the Education Act, 2016 (8th Amendment) and the School Sector Development Plan (SSDP) 2016-2023, have adopted the gender-neutral term ‘head teacher’. Similarly, the term 'head teacher' is being widely used in practice, including official circulars and communications from the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST), educational reports and latest publications. The term 'headmaster' is the direct translation from its Nepali term.
The Education Act does not recognize headteachers as a distinct role (Singh, 2016). Instead, the headteacher is simply a teacher who also leads the school. In this regard, the minimum educational qualification of a headteacher is the same as that required to be a teacher (Master’s degree in education). To qualify for headteacher of a community school, a teacher should be in a permanent tenure position (Nepal Law Commission, 2002).
2. School principals
2.1. Leadership standards and roles
Competency standards and leadership frameworks and guidelines
The 2002 Education Rules list the guidelines for the appointment, functions and duties of the school headmaster.
Roles
Setting expectations/objectives: The 2010 Education Regulation, 2010, Rule 93(1) (sixth amendment) lists some key leadership functions of the headmaster including goal setting for the school’s yearly, half-yearly and monthly school plans; building the school culture by maintaining co-operation between teachers, students and parents and ensuring a respectful school environment. According to the 2002 Education Rules, the headmaster prepares the school's annual programmes and implements them upon the approval of the school management committee. School development plans must consist of an analysis of the current situation of the school and priorities and strategies for solving the identified problems. The School Sector Development Plan (SSDP) 2016-2023 further emphasises the head teacher’s roles in school-based management and comprehensive school improvement planning.
Developing teaching and learning: The 2002 Education Rules list several functions of the headmaster that are related to improving the teaching and learning processes in schools such as implementing the curriculum and textbooks; preparing programmes in collaboration with teachers for teaching classes; conducting periodical examinations of students and prescribing functions and duties of teachers among others. The National Curriculum Framework for School Education 2076 (2019) reinforces the head teacher’s role in curriculum implementation and instructional leadership.
Promoting collaboration: The 2002 Education Rules state that the headmaster oversees creating an environment of cooperation among teachers and other working staff, students and guardians by coordinating with teachers and other employees. The SSDP 2016-2023 further emphasises the head teacher’s role in community engagement and partnership building to enhance school effectiveness.
Supporting staff development: After the new constitution of federal Nepal was promulgated in 2015, the Local Government Operation Act 2017 mentions functions related to monitoring teachers’ professional development needs and providing support through selecting and recommending teachers to the local government education unit who then recommends to the Education Development and Coordination Unit in their respective districts for training programmes, assigning jobs and responsibilities to teachers and staff. According to the Education Act 2016 (8th Amendment), the head teachers with the approval of the Management Committee select and send teachers to for training. While restructuring the then Department of Education, the Center for Education and Human Resource Development (CEHRD) was developed and now is playing a key role in organisation and coordination of teacher training programs. The headmaster also holds teachers' meetings at least once a month. Professional development trainings may be organized by the District Education Office, universities, NGOs, and INGOs.
Acting in accordance with the ethical principles of the profession: The 2002 Education Rules contain a Code of Conduct to be followed by teachers. Additionally, the headmaster is supposed to carry out functions for maintaining discipline, good moral character, politeness etc. in the school. The Teacher Service Commission Rules, 2009 (4th Amendment) also provides guidelines on teacher conduct, which the head teacher is responsible for enforcing and monitoring.
Others: The 2002 Education Rules state that the headmaster must take classes or assign classes as per the prescription of the Ministry. However, following the School Sector Reform Plan (2009-2015) and subsequent policies, the teaching load of head teachers is often reduced to allow more time for leadership and management tasks.
In large community schools, head teachers extended their responsibilities by actively seeking additional funding to cover rising expenses that exceeded the school's allocated budget. They worked collaboratively with stakeholders, including local authorities and external organizations, to secure alternative financial resources. This additional support was crucial in addressing unforeseen costs, such as employing school-funded teachers (as government-provided teachers were insufficient), improving infrastructure, and purchasing learning materials and extracurricular resources. By leveraging networks and strategic planning, head teachers played a key role in ensuring the school's financial stability and efficiency.
2.2. Selection and working conditions
Degree requirements and prior teaching experience
Schedule 13 of the 2002 Education Rules outlines the grounds for selecting a headmaster. Out of a total of 100 points, candidates are scored based on their: academic qualifications, teaching experience, training, previous work performance evaluations, school reform working plan, and leadership capacity. As per the National Education Policy 2076 (2019), the head teacher must have at least a bachelor’s degree in education and 10 years of teaching experience. Qualifications and teaching experience are given the most weight in the selection process for school principals, while leadership and management skills are less emphasized. The school headmaster must have secured at least 70 marks as per Schedule 13 and must be practising in the concerned school as a teacher. The regulation aims to choose the most senior and high-performing teacher for the principal role. Two top-scoring permanent teachers are assessed which then makes recommendations by Teachers Selection Committee for appointment. In the case that none of the teachers at a concerned school has secured the required marks, the locan government’s education unit shall appoint any other teacher working in other community schools within the municipality who has secured the required marks. If no suitable candidates are found, as per section 13 A, the Teachers Selection Committee shall make a recommendation for appointment to the post of headmaster from amongst the permanent teachers working in the same school upon conducting a competitive examination.
Although a minimum age is not specified for the position of headmaster, members of the school management committee (of which the headmaster is a member) must be at least twenty-five years old.
Appointment decision
Following Nepal’s transition to a federal system with the promulgation of the new constitution in 2015 and the election of the local government bodies in 2017, head teacher’s appointment process has changed. This transition has had significant implications for school governance, including the appointment process for head teachers. The shift of educational administration from the central and district levels to the local level has been gradual, with various adjustments and policy changes occurring in the years following the elections. According to the Local Government Operation Act 2017, the School Management Committee (SMC) now recommends potential candidates to the local government’s education unit and they may appoint the head teacher with/without consultation with the Education Development and Coordination Unit in the district.
Employment equity measures
While there is no information available about equity measures in the employment of headmasters, Nepal does reserve posts for female teachers. If there are three posts of teachers in a primary school, one post is reserved for a female teacher. A school with up to seven posts must have at least two posts reserved for female teachers. Schools with more than seven posts should have at least three female teachers. Although recent policies, including the School Sector Development Plan (SSDP) 2016-2023, prioritise increasing women’s participation in school leadership roles, specific quotas for head teacher positions are not clearly articulated/mandated.
Working conditions
As per the 2014 Nepal Trade Union Act and the Labour Act 2017, the Nepal Teachers’ Association guarantees all teachers the right to form a union and advocate for their rights. Principals or headmasters are not specifically mentioned. As per the 2002 Education Rules, the headmaster is supposed to receive a monthly allowance of Rs. 500 at the secondary school level, Rs. 300 at the lower secondary school level and Rs. 200 at the primary school level. However, the Education Act 2016 (8th Amendment) provides for performance-based incentives which are determined by local and provincial governments in line with federal guidelines.
2.3. Leadership preparation and training
Pre-service training
The 2002 Education Rules highlight the role of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology in promoting the skills of the teachers and other staff under the Ministry. The Ministry may provide training and conduct programmes relating to Educational Human Resource Development. However, it does not specify training specifically for the position of the headmaster. The Education Act (8th Amendment) 2016 highlights the importance of leadership training for aspiring head teachers, although specific pre-service programs are not mandated.
Induction and in-service training
Following Nepal’s transition to federal system, formalised with the new constitution in 2015 and implemented through local elections in 2017, the responsibility for in-service training has been shifted. Now, the local government’s education units, in coordination with provincial and federal bodies, are responsible for organising professional development activities for head teachers. The Center for Education and Human Resource Development (CEHRD), which replaced the National Center for Education Development (NCED), develops and oversees national training policies and programs for educational leaders, including head teachers and educational managers. In addition, each of Nepal's seven provinces now has an Education Training Centre (ETC) responsible for organising and managing training programs at the provincial level. These ETCs work in collaboration with CEHRD and local government education units to deliver relevant and context-specific training to head teachers. The School Sector Development Plan (SSDP) 2016-2023 emphasises continuous professional development for head teachers, focusing on instructional leadership and school management skills.
Recently, the Center for Education Human Resource Development (CEHRD) under the Ministry of Education Science and Technology (MoEST) emphasized the need for the British Council's recommendation in school leadership. The British Council has recommended conducting a school leadership audit and creating a competency framework for head teachers in Nepal.
3. Teachers, parents and students
3.1. School management committees and boards
The Education Act (8th Amendment) 2016 provides updated information on the composition of school management committees for operation, supervision and management in all community schools The committee should be made up of a chairperson, three parents of which one is a woman, a ward chairperson or a member designated by them, a local intellectual or educationist, a nominated schoolteacher, and the headteacher of the school who serves as the member-secretary.
The Act permits the Ministry of Education and Sports to form a School Management Committee (SMC) for institutional schools that either receive government funding, use government-owned infrastructure and land, or provide specialized education, provided there are valid justifications. The functions, rights and duties of the school management boards for both community and institutional schools include mobilizing funds for the operation of the school, maintaining records of school property, maintaining records of academic, physical and financial data of schools; approving the annual budget of the school; assign duties to deputed teachers; carry out audits among others. The Local Government Operation Act 2017 further empowers local governments to oversee and support school management committees.
3.2. Middle leaders
The 2002 Education Rules detail the ladder of career promotions for teachers. Requirements for promotion include seven years of experience in the current post, acquiring training as prescribed by the Ministry for the next level, obtaining the license necessary for the next level, and no punishment for the last five years. The teacher seeking promotion must also have good marks on work performance. The rules also mention class teachers who lead the class (grade level). The Teacher Service Commission Rules 2009 (4th Amendment) further clarifies the promotion criteria and process.
While there is no specific designation for ‘middle-leaders’, the School Sector Dedelopment Plan (SSDP) 2016-2023 highlights distributed leadership styles in schools. This encourages head teachers to delegate responsibilities to more experienced teachers by creating informal and temporary middle leadership roles such as assistant head teacher, coordinators, level in-charges, department heads, grade teachers and so on.
3.3. Parents
The 2002 Education Rules specify that there shall be a Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) consisting of all teachers of community schools and guardians as its members. An Executive Committee of the Teacher-Parents Association shall be formed consisting of eleven members in maximum including a chairperson of the committee, the headmaster and at least one teacher and parents. The main functions of this committee relate to carrying out necessary functions for maintaining the quality of education, monitoring whether the school has fixed appropriate fees, and exchanging information regularly on school activities. Moreover, the Education Act 2016 (8th Amendment) reinforces the role of parents in school governance, highlighting the importance of their involvement in school improvement process.
3.4. Students
There is no information available in national laws, policies, or binding frameworks about the rules for the composition of student councils. However, National Education Policy 2076 (2019) encourages schools to form student councils or clubs to promote student leadership and participation in school governance. Many schools have established student councils based on their local practices and school-level policies. The composition and roles of these councils may vary between schools.
4. Governance
4.1. Autonomy of school leaders
As per the 2002 Education Rules, the headmaster is in charge of preparing teaching and learning programmes in consultation with teachers and supervising their teaching to ensure that the classes run according to the specified programme. Moreover, the headmaster is required to implement the curriculum and learning materials in the school, as prescribed by the Government of Nepal.
The headmaster has the autonomy to operate and control the administrative functions of the schools. Headmasters shall prepare budget estimates, get them approved by the Management Committee, and send one copy thereof to the local government’s education unit within the prescribed time each year. The headmaster also has the right to spend the budget as per the direction and powers entrusted upon him/her by the Management Committee and to maintain the accounts of income and expenditure for the school.
The headmaster is not solely or primarily responsible for the hiring of teachers. headmasters are a part of the management committee responsible for selecting teachers. Teachers are selected through an open competition process. The Local Government Operation Act 2017 has given more autonomy to local governments in teacher management, assisting head teacher in the hiring process.
4.2. Assessment and accountability of school leaders
Following the Nepal’s transition to a federal system, the assessment and accountability structures for head teachers have been changed. According to the 2002 Education Rules, the supervision and review of the headmaster’s work was done by a member of the Management Committee. Now, the local government’s education unit is responsible for monitoring schools and evaluating head teacher’s performance. If the authorised official from the local government submits a report stating that the headmaster is not working satisfactorily or is found to display bad character, and the Management Committee also recommends the same, the local government may dismiss the concerned headmaster from the post at any time. The local government’s education unit has the authority to take disciplinary actions against the headmaster in case of non-compliance to rules or wrongdoing. They may withhold salary increments or the promotion of the headmaster. The Education Development and Coordination Unit (EDCU) at the district level may provide additional oversight and support in the assessment process; however, the primary responsibility lies with the local government.
4.3. Teacher assessment by school leaders
According to the 2002 Education Rules, the supervision and review of a teacher shall be done by the Head Master and Chairperson of the Management Committee respectively. The headmaster completes work performance evaluation forms of teachers and submits them to the Management Committee. Although they submitted reports relating to the conduct, behaviour, and work performance of teachers and other employees to the District Education Office before, after the election of local governments in 2017, they submit them to the local government’s education unit and the School Management Committee. The local government’s education unit is also responsible for conducting the evaluation of teachers for promotion and forwarding the evaluation report to the commission. Performance evaluations are also conducted by officials designated by the local government. In this regard, the School Education Sector Plan (SESP) 2023-2032 also prioritises the need for a more comprehensive and formative teacher evaluation mechanism, which may lead to further changes in the head teacher’s role in teacher assessment.
This profile was reviewed by Shankar Dhakal from the School of Education at Edith Cowan University and Jeevan Khanal, Assistant Professor and M.Phil. in Educational Studies Programs Coordinator at Nepal Open University.
