Financing for equity in higher education
1. Education resources to subnational governments
2. Education resources to institutions
3. Education resources to students
4. Support for students' living costs
Introduction
Key financing indicators (UIS Data)
According to UIS data, the gross enrolment ratio for tertiary education for both sexes was 128% in 2022, with a 28% initial government funding per tertiary student as a percentage of GDP per capita. The initial household funding per tertiary student as a percentage of GDP per capita was 1.52% in 2021.
According to the Ministry of National Education, the net enrolment rate in tertiary education stood at 46% in the 2024/25 academic year, with a notable gender gap: 39% for males and 53% for females. In terms of financing, the GDP share of total public education expenditure was 3% in 2025, with higher education (public universities) accounting for 25% of the total education budget and 0.79% of GDP. With regard to SDG indicator 4.5.4, the initial government funding per tertiary student as a percentage of GDP per capita was 27% in 2024, while the initial household funding per tertiary student as a percentage of GDP per capita was 1.7% in the same year.
Tuition-free status
Public universities do not charge tuition fees to domestic enrolled in formal (daytime) education programmes. According to the Law on Dual Education in Higher Education Institutions and the 1981 Higher Education Law(as amended in 2025), students attending evening programmes pay tuition fees. Tuition fees also apply to international students and to those who exceed the theoretical duration of study. Private institutions (foundation universities) charge fees to all students; however, under Turkish higher education legislation, foundation universities are required to provide full scholarships to at least 15% of their students, with the associated costs typically cross-subsidised by fee-paying students.
Governance
Higher education governance is centralized under the Council of Higher Education (YÖK), an autonomous body responsible for planning and coordination of higher education. The Council is also responsible for approving higher education institution budgets.
Higher education institutions are divided into public and foundation (non-profit private) universities. The budgetof public universities is covered by the state from shares allocated from the central government budget (Ministry of Finance) and the revenues from their revolving funds. Foundation universities are established on the condition that they are not for profit and subject to the supervision and control of the state. Their funding comes from tax exemptions provided by the state, tuition fees, and contributions from private individuals, institutions, and organizations. The Council of Higher Education (YÖK) is responsible for organizing all activities related to higher education.
The centralized structure of higher education governance is particularly evident in rector appointment processes and the oversight mechanisms applicable to foundation universities. Under the current system, rectors of both state and foundation universities are appointed directly by the President of the Republic following review and nomination by YÖK, establishing a hierarchy in which central executive authority — rather than academic electoral processes — serves as the primary decision-making body. Although foundation universities operate with private budgets, they remain subject to rigorous oversight by YÖK with respect to academic standards, enrolment caps, and financial transparency; indeed, YÖK holds the authority to temporarily transfer the administration of a foundation university to a designated state university — referred to as a "patron university" — in cases of deteriorating educational quality or failure to meet financial obligations.
1. Education resources to subnational governments
Government funding for public higher education institutions is provided directly from the central government to the institutions, in the form of a line-item budget. Although local governments (municipalities) do not transfer direct shares to universities from the central budget, they participate in the system through indirect financing mechanisms to ensure equity in education.
2. Education resources to institutions
Funding for private universities in the absence of public institutions
Non-state higher education institutions consist of non-profit private foundation higher education institutions, with no for-profit private universities.
Foundation universities benefit from financial exemptions and are exempt from property tax, as regulated by the 1981 Higher Education Law. The rules for government aid to foundation universities are as follows:
- The institution must be open to education for at least two academic years.
- At least 15% of the students must have a full scholarship.
- Granting scholarships to doctoral students and employing Turkish national faculty members living abroad for at least one year.
- The number of students per faculty member is equal to or less than the average of the number of students per faculty member of all public higher education institutions.
- To be in the first half among all higher education institutions considering the number of publications in well-known scientific journals per faculty member.
- Placement of students who are at the top 5% according to the central university entrance exam scores for the institution.
- To be in the first half among all higher education institutions considering the university entrance scores of the students placed in the institution.
Allocation and equity
The financial resources of public universities depends on the national centralised budget, with the amount of financial resources to a university determined after the end a series of negotiations with the central government each year. The total budget of a state university is classified into five main headings: (1) personnel expenses, (2) Social Security Premium expenses, (3) purchase of goods and services, (4) current transfers and (5) capital investment.
Beyond central budget allocations, universities also have the authority to generate their own revenue, including through international enrolment, evening education programmes, donations, and tuition fees and student contributions collected through non-thesis master's and distance education programmes. In particular, non-thesis master's and distance learning programmes function as strategic instruments for increasing non-central budget revenues and enhancing institutional financial flexibility.
3. Education resources to students
Admission for vulnerable groups
Students are admitted through the central placement system based on their score in the central higher education entrance exam. The upper limits of the quota of the students to be enrolled in the foundation higher education institutions are determined by the Council of Higher Education, and the placement procedures are done by the Measurement, Selection and Placement Centre. This process is the same for public higher education institutions. Candidates for programmes that admit students with a special talent exam in state and foundation higher education institutions are accepted according to the results of the special talent exam held by the relevant higher education institutions, provided that it is not less than the minimum YKS (Higher Education Institutions Exam) score determined by the Higher Education Council.
In 2025, quotas were granted by the Council of Higher Education to relatives of martyrs and veterans, earthquake victims, and female candidates over the age of 34 at universities.
While foundation universities are required to provide full scholarships to at least 15% of their students, these scholarship quotas are largely allocated on the basis of centralized placement examination scores. Given that performance on university entrance examinations is strongly associated with socioeconomic status, students from disadvantaged backgrounds may have limited access to high-scoring full-scholarship programs.
Scholarships, grants and loans for vulnerable groups
The General Directorate of Credit and Hostels (KYGM), operating under the Ministry of Youth and Sports, is the main institution responsible for the provision of financial aid to students, mainly financed through the state budget.
Financial aid for students in public higher education is regulated by the Higher Education Law No. 2547 and the 2004 Law on Granting Scholarship Credits to Higher Education Students, with grants and loans awarded at the undergraduate and graduate level on the basis of merit and need. Students with physical disabilities, orphans and institutionalised children, children of martyrs and war veterans, national sportsmen, and terror victims receive unconditional, non-repayable grants. These grants have been applicable since 2004. Government scholarships are typically awarded to students who are financially disadvantaged, academically successful, disabled, or relatives of martyrs and veterans. Additionally, since 2023, students from earthquake-affected regions have been granted similar prioritisation.
International students are awarded scholarships (such as the government-funded Türkiye scholarship programme) based on academic excellence, age requirements, and language proficiency, with no specific equity criteria. Scholarships cover tuition, accommodation, health insurance, and a monthly stipend.
Although foundation universities have the autonomy to manage their financial aid budgets and set additional scholarship criteria, they are legally mandated by YÖK to provide full scholarships to at least 15% of their centrally-placed students.
4. Support for students’ living costs
Transportation
Student transportation is supported through highly subsidized fares provided by local municipalities and state-run transport authorities. Municipalities significantly reduce students' living costs through subsidized low-cost public transportation cards, which facilitate access to campuses for students from various socio-economic backgrounds. Special ID cards issued to all students provide them with discounts on public transportation, theatres, cinemas, museums and some other artistic activities.
Accommodation
For higher education students whose family residence is different from the location of the institution where they are studying, accommodation and nutrition support are provided by the government within quotas in dormitories affiliated with the General Directorate of Higher Education Credit and Dormitories (KYGM) and in some own dormitories of universities.
Some private universities cover the cost of nutrition, accommodation, tuition fees and living expenses for a certain number of successful students who choose them.
Textbooks
There is no specific state support for student textbooks at the higher education level. However, some municipalities mitigate this gap by providing cash grants and social assistance specifically targeted at students in need to cover their educational materials and stationery expenses. Furthermore, municipal digital libraries and youth workshops offer free access to academic resources, indirectly reducing the financial burden of textbooks on households.
This profile has been reviewed by the Ministry of National Education of Türkiye and Professor Ekber Tomul (Burdur Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi).
